Simple electrode assembly engineering:Toward a multifunctional lead-acid battery

Electrochemical energy storage is a promising technology for the integration of renewable energy.Lead-acid battery is perhaps among the most successful commercialized systems ever since thanks to its excellent cost-effectiveness and safety records.Despite of 165 years of development,the low energy density as well as the coupled power and energy density scaling restrain its wider application in real life.To address this challenge,we optimized the configuration of conventional Pb-acid battery to integrate two gas diffusion electrodes.The novel device can work as a Pb-air battery using ambient air,showing a peak power density of 183 mW cm^(−2),which was comparable with other state-of-the-art metal-O_(2)batteries.It can also behave as a fuel cell,simultaneously converting H_(2)and air into electricity with a peak power density of 75 mW cm^(−2).Importantly,this device showed little performance degradation after 35 h of the longevity test.Our work shows the exciting potential of lead battery technology and demonstrates the importance of battery architecture optimization toward improved energy storage capacity.

Cycle life prediction and match detection in retired electric vehicle batteries

The lifespan models of commercial 18650-type lithium ion batteries （nominal capacity of 1150 mA-h） were presented. The lifespan was extrapolated based on this model. The results indicate that the relationship of capacity retention and cycle number can be expressed by Gaussian function. The selecting function and optimal precision were verified through actual match detection and a range of alternating current impedance testing. The cycle life model with high precision （〉99%） is beneficial to shortening the orediction time and cutting the prediction cost.

Dynamic Analysis of Incentive Policy Impacts on Recycling of Retired Batteries for Electric Vehicles

Electric Vehicles(EVs),as a low-carbon means of transportation,have promptly become popular worldwide in the past decade.Since the lifespan of batteries is limited,massive of Electric Vehicle Batteries(EVBs)are being retired,resulting in a rapid increase in the demand for the recycling of retired EVBs in recent years.However,due to high recycling costs and immature recycling technologies,EV manufacturers are facing significant challenges in recycling retired EVBs.China,as the country with the largest number of EV users in the world,is exploring effective incentive policies for the recycling of retired EVBs.In this context,we developed a system dynamics model to analyze the impact of incentive polices such as,recycling subsidies,technological progress,and carbon trading on the retired EVBs recycling.Results show that:1)recycling subsidies can improve the recycling ratios quickly in the short term,and dynamic subsidies are more efficient than static subsidies;2)the policy of technological advancement can reduce the recovery and cascade utilization cost,thus having a positive impact on battery recycling,but the policy effect has a time-delay;3)the carbon trading policy is unable to promote efficient recycling due to the current low carbon prices;4)dynamic subsidy and technological advancement policies complement each other,therefore,the combination of these two policies is the best way to promote the recycling of retired EVBs and reduce carbon emissions.It is hoped that this study will contribute to the ongoing debate on policies for the industrialization of retired EVBs recycling.

Research on thin grid materials of lead-acid batteries

A detailed investigation on Pb-Ca-Sn alloys was made in order to choose suitable grid alloys materials for thin plate lead-acid batteries. The electrochemical performances of alloys were investigated by electrochemical corrosion experiment, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and cyclic voltammetry (CV) test. The results indicate that Pb-Ca-Sn-Bi-Cu alloys can be used to make the grids used for thin grid lead-acid batteries, the content of bismuth has primary effects on the corrosion resistance of grid alloys, the composition of alloys plays an important role on batteries performance, and appropriate scale of elements can be choosed to obtain optimal electrochemical performance. The lead-acid batteries using this kind of grid show good performance by cycle life test.

Experiments Study on Charge Technology of Lead-Acid Electric Vehicle Batteries

The basic theory of the fast charge and several charge methods are introduced. In order to heighten charge efficiency of valve-regulated lead-acid battery and shorten the charge time, five charge methods are investigated with experiments done on the Digatron BNT 400-050 test bench. Battery current, terminal voltage, capacity, energy and terminal pole temperature during battery experiment were recorded, and corresponding curves were depicted. Battery capacity-time ratio, energy efficiency and energy-temperature ratio are put forward to be the appraising criteria of lead-acid battery on electric vehicle （EV）. According to the appraising criteria and the battery curves, multistage-current/negative-pulse charge method is recommended to charge lead-acid EV battery.

PREPARATION OF LEAD-ACID BATTERY USING ELECTROPLATED RETICULATED SiC AS THE POSITIVE CURRENT COLLECTOR

The possibility of using Pb-electroplated reticulated SiC as the positive current collector for lead-acid batteries was investigated. Reticulated SiC with two aperture sizes (3 and 2mm) were tested as the substrate of positive electrode. It was found that the reticulated SiC has an excellent corrosion resistance in H2SO4 solution, and the Pb layer electroplated on reticulated SiC showed analogous electrochemical behavior to metal Pb. Preliminary test of the battery performance indicated that the utilization efficiency of the positive active mass of new designed batteries are improved compared with the conventional batteries. The improvement could be ascribed to the high specific surface area of the reticulated structured positive current collector, which was further supported by the even better performance of the battery made from a smaller aperture size (2mm) reticulated SiC as the substrate of the positive electrode.

Self-Discharge in Valve-Regulated Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

Factors that cause the self-discharge in valve-regulated sealed lead-acid batteries are discussed and measures to inhibit the self-discharge are put forward.

Study of the Charge Acceptance of Small-Size Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

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Mathematical Model and Experiment of Temperature Effect on Discharge of Lead-Acid Battery for PV Systems in Tropical Area

This paper presents Mathematical Model and Experiment of Temperature effect on Charge and Discharge of Lead-Acid Battery performance in PV system power supply. To test temperature effect on battery discharge cycles, a temperature range of tropical area from 25 - 60 degrees Celsius in a simulator is set up for testing. This temperature range is normally practical for battery usage. This allows the battery to determine the parameters of the battery quickly and high accurate. A Mathematical Model with MATLAB Program is written and constructed as block diagram using the equations of battery the parameters. By running program, the effects of various parameters are investigated. The results showed that time of discharge the battery is longer. Then, the experiment is set up by battery VRLA 12 V 20 AH. The results confirmed the mathematical model simulations.

A study on equivalent circuit model of lead-acid battery for electric vehicles

A 100Ah@42V lead-acid battery package for electric vehicles are used for study. 1he hybrid pulse test is applied to the battery package to acquire enough data, by which the partnership for a new generation of vehicles （PNGV） equivalent circuit model parameters are identified by the least square method. Then, the PNGV model is verified under two conditions, i.e., the composite pulse excitation and the constant-current respectively. The corresponding maximum relative errors of output voltage are less than 3 % and 3.5 %. Results show that the present PNGV equivalent circuit model and verification method is effective, which can satisfy requirement of simulation of power system of electric vehicles.

Potentiometric Measurement of State-of-Charge of Lead-Acid Batteries Using Polymeric Ferrocene and Quinones Derivatives

Measurement of state-of-charge of lead-acid batteries using potentiometric sensors would be convenient;however, most of the electrochemical couples are either soluble or are unstable in the battery electrolyte. This paper describes the results of an investigation of poly (divinylferrocene) (PDVF) and Poly(diethynylanthraquinone) (PAQ) couples in sulfuric acid with the view to developing a potentiometric sensor for lead-acid batteries. These compounds were both found to be quite stable and undergo reversible reduction/oxidation in sulfuric acid media. Their redox potential difference varied linearly with sulfuric acid concentration in the range of 1 M - 5 M (i.e. simulated lead-acid electrolyte during battery charge/discharge cycles). A sensor based on these compounds has been investigated.

Application of a Sulfur Removal Hydrometallurgical Process in a Lead-Acid Battery Recycling Plant in Costa Rica

This study presents the implementation of a desulphurization process for lead recycling under different chemical and physical conditions using pyro-metallurgical processes. Desulphurization was done using a hydrometallurgical process using sodium carbonate as a desulphurization agent and different lead-bearing loads compositions. Waste characterization included: SO2 concentrations in the stack emissions, total lead content in the furnace ash, the total lead content in the slag, and the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP). A significant reduction in SO2 emissions was achieved (~55% reduction) where mean SO2 concentrations changed from 2193 ± 135 ppm to 1006 ± 62 ppm after the implementation of the modified processes. The desulfurized lead paste (i.e. the metallic fraction lead of the battery) of the modified process exhibited an improvement in the concentration of the lead in the TCLP test, with an average value of 1.5 ppm which is below US EPA limit of 5 ppm. The traditional process TCLP mean value for the TCLP was 54.2 ppm. The total lead content in the bag house ashes shows not significant variations, when comparing the desulphurization (67.6% m/m) and non-desulphurization process (64.9% m/m). The total lead mean content in the slag was higher in the desulphurization process (2.49% m/m) than the traditional process (1.91% m/m). Overall, the implementation of a new desulphurization method would potentially increase the operation costs in 10.3%. At the light of these results, a combination of hydrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical processes in the recycling of lead-acid batteries can be used to reduce the environmental impact of these industries but would increase the operational costs of small lead recyclers.

退役动力电池回收研究进展及未来趋势——基于CiteSpace可视化分析

基于中国知网(CNKI)数据库和Web of Science核心数据库,运用文献计量软件CiteSpace对2000—2023年退役动力电池回收研究的发文趋势、高产作者、高产机构、关键词共现和聚类等进行可视化分析。结果发现:自2000年以来,动力电池回收研究呈持续上升趋势,国外高产作者聚集且合作关系紧,国内高产作者分散且合作关系疏;国外高产机构集中于发达国家,国内高产机构多来自经济发展水平较高的城市;关键词共现和聚类分析表明,退役动力电池回收工艺、梯次利用和回收体系是研究焦点。未来应积极开展跨区域、跨学科和跨产业合作,加强高效、智能、安全的退役动力电池回收体系及其梯次利用产业链构建研究,以促进新能源汽车产业链的健康发展。

采用集成深度森林模型实现退役电池容量估算

针对退役锂离子电池容量估算面临历史数据缺失,传统机器学习算法存在过拟合和单个模型估算不稳定的问题,提出一种基于集成深度森林的容量估算模型。首先,从退役电池一次满充数据中提取恒流充电时间和充电电流面积特征;然后,利用提取的特征和容量训练多个深度森林建立集成深度森林模型,并设计一种可信状态决策剔除集成模型中波动较大的估算值,取剩余估算值平均值作为最终估算结果。采用自测和公开数据集对所提方法进行验证,结果表明,该方法能实现退役电池剩余容量的准确稳定估算,最大误差仅为0.08 Ah,与传统机器学习算法相比,该方法能获得更高的容量估算精度。

基于双向半桥LLC谐振变换器的退役电池组均衡方法

退役电池在储能应用过程中,由于其较大的不一致性问题会导致退役电池组出现过充或过放现象,从而限制电池组整体的容量甚至引起热失控,造成安全隐患。针对以上问题,设计一种基于双向半桥LLC谐振变换器的有源均衡电路。该均衡电路通过开关阵列与隔离型双向半桥LLC谐振变换器的相互配合,能够实现单体电池与电池组整体之间的能量传递,使退役电池组中各单体电池达到能量平衡。另外,为进一步提高均衡器的均衡速度及精度,提出一种联合电压与荷电状态(SOC)共同作为均衡变量的多状态均衡控制策略。依据电池组当前不同的能量状态,在电池组静置、充电及放电3种不同状态下,分别采用不同的均衡变量以及对应的均衡策略,从而实现电池组的快速均衡。最后,通过搭建小型的均衡实验样机对6节串联电池进行均衡实验,实验结果表明,所提均衡方法具有较快的均衡速度及较好的均衡效果。

退役动力电池加速寿命实验教学试验方法设计

为了准确估计退役动力电池的寿命,合理将其进行梯次利用是目前研究的重点,也是高校实验教学开展的重要内容。因此,通过一种基于逆幂律模型的加速寿命试验方法对退役动力电池进行研究。此试验方法涉及了仪器设备和仿真软件等多个理论基础知识,系统地训练了学生资料查询、试验操作与分析的能力。在试验中,首先在不同倍率下对退役动力电池进行充放电实验,建立放电倍率与健康度的关联特性;其次,搭建动力电池的加速寿命试验平台,选取不同放电倍率为加速应力进行加速寿命试验;最后,通过仿真与试验结果进行分析,进一步确定动力电池的寿命衰减特性,为高校教学研究动力电池的梯次利用提供参考。此外,通过仿真试验和教学平台的有机结合,提高学生实际工程应用和开发的实践综合能力。

基于退役电池分级互备自适应控制的一次调频

目的“双碳”目标下新能源大量并网导致电力系统等效惯量降低、电能供应不确定性增加,给电网频率安全带来挑战。电池储能响应快速、调节灵活,近年来在电网调频中得到广泛关注。考虑到目前新能源汽车发展迅猛,随之而来的是汽车电池大量退役,计及电池配置成本问题,本文开展如何在安全使用的前提下,充分利用退役电池参与到电网调频应用的研究。方法首先,构建退役电池参与电网一次调频的AGC模型,并分析退役电池充放电深度对其剩余寿命的影响,确定其运行的SOC阈值范围;其次,通过设计出力比例系数,将虚拟惯性和虚拟下垂优势最大化,同时以退役电池SOC为切换条件进行分级自适应控制;然后,引入频率偏差分配系数使另一组退役电池参与备用配合,避免一组电池频繁切换充放电状态损耗电池剩余使用寿命;最后,在MATLAB/Simulink中搭建仿真模型,设置多组参数并对比。结果仿真结果证明,合理利用退役电池能够有效替代新电池参与到电网调频控制中,对电网频率的稳定性及安全运行提供有效支撑。结论本文所提方案中,退役电池能够有效降低电网最大频率偏差,避免电池SOC越限及频率二次跌落。同时,该方案显著减少了退役电池在负荷波动时的充放电切换次数,有利于延长退役电池剩余使用寿命。

基于改进VIKOR算法的梯次利用电池电网储能场景适用性评价方法

快速发展的电动汽车带来了巨量的退役动力电池,但其梯次利用场景缺乏科学的甄选方法。研究了梯次利用电池电网储能场景适用性评价方法。首先,从技术性能、经济性能和安全性能3个维度,构建了综合考虑电池运行状态、储能配置经济效益和梯次利用安全风险的梯次利用电池电网储能场景适用性评价指标体系。其次,采用多属性群决策方法优化设定评价维度权重,采用CRITIC法和熵权法形成组合赋权法对评价指标进行权重设置,设计了基于改进VIKOR算法的应用场景适用性评价算法。最后,针对峰谷套利、平抑可再生能源出力波动和调频辅助服务3种典型电网储能应用场景,量化计算了给定退役动力电池状态下电网储能应用场景的适用度。提出的梯次利用电池电网储能场景适用性评价方法可为给定状态的退役动力电池甄选出适用场景,为实际工程相关决策人员提供决策依据。

退役动力电池双层均衡方法研究

针对如何提高退役电池组均衡速度,提出了一种双层均衡电路,底层电路采用基于电感的Buck-Boost均衡电路结构,顶层电路采用可重构电路结构。根据开路电压(OCV)和电池荷电状态(SOC)曲线关系采用分段均衡控制策略。设计双层均衡电路的仿真实验,仿真实验结果表明:在电池参数相同情况下,与传统Buck-Boost均衡电路相比,双层电路均衡时间减少25%,有效提高了电池组均衡速度。在电池状态和均衡电路结构相同的情况下,与单一变量的均衡策略相比,SOC-电压分段均衡策略时间减少11%,验证了该均衡方案可行性。

基于集成聚类的退役锂电池直接分组

针对退役电池筛选分组效率低的问题,提出了一种基于加权表决集成聚类算法的退役锂离子电池直接分组方法。提取充电电压片段特征,对特征进行降维,并使用集成聚类算法直接对特征进行分组,实现退役锂离子电池分组。该方法只需要得到部分恒流充电曲线便可实现退役锂离子电池的按容量分组,提高了筛选效率。搭建了磷酸铁锂电池仿真和实验平台,对所提的电池筛选、分组策略进行仿真和实验分析。从退役电池分组容量精度和分组效率的角度验证了所提策略的正确性和有效性。