Imaging Rock Density Distribution beneath Liwa Fracture Zone in the Southern Part of the Great Sumatran Fault System, Indonesia

We have imaged rock density distribution beneath Liwa fracture zone in the southern part of the the Sumatran Fault Zone by modelling and inverting Bouguer gravity data in two-and three-dimensional environments, respectively. The purpose of this study is aimed to figure out the subsurface distribution of rock densities associated with subsurface basement structure representing the evidence of trans-tensional tectonic product in the SF. In the gravity modeling, to eliminate distortions to the measured gravity values before modelling and inverting the data, Bouguer anomalies obtained in field measurements are reduced to the horizontal plane of z = +800 m as a representation of the average elevation in Liwa. For the inversion, we used algorithm implementing depth-and minimum volume weighting parameters in order to obtain a smooth model with better vertical resolution. The two-dimensional models show clearly surface topography of the basement rocks and the presence of normal faults. The reduced Bouguer anomaly of +800 m elevation shows the presence of structural lineaments extending primarily in a northwest-southeast direction, parallel to Sumatran Fault Zone and older graben faults showing a negative flower structure. From the three-dimensional inversion, the model illustrates an increase of density contrast, lower values being found near the surface and higher values in the deeper parts. The lower density contrast of 0.15 to 0.3 g/cm3 found in the rock groups at depths of 2 km and less is characteristic of relatively homogeneous and poorly compacted rocks. Rocks with moderate to high density contrast (>1.0 g/cm3) are recognized at depths of over 2 km. This model suggests a change of basement morphology as a function of depth, and delineates structural lineaments extending in northwest-southeast direction. This study supports the previous thought that Liwa area is underlain by graben structures, formed by trans-tensional tectonic events. Higher-density Tertiary volcanic breccia and lower-density Quaternary volcanic products of the Ranau Formation form the basement rocks and the overlying younger sediments, respectively.

The effect of topographic density variations on the geoid and orthometric heights in Hong Kong

Utilizing the adopted average topographic density of 2670 kg/m^(3)in the reduction of gravity anomalies introduces errors attributed to topographic density variations,which consequently affect geoid modeling accuracy.Furthermore,the mean gravity along the plumbline within the topography in the definition of Helmert orthometric heights is computed approximately by applying the Poincar e-Prey gravity reduction where the topographic density variations are disregarded.The Helmert orthometric heights of benchmarks are then affected by errors.These errors could be random or systematic depending on the specific geological setting of the region where the leveling network is physically established and/or the geoid model is determined.An example of systematic errors in orthometric heights can be given for large regions characterized by sediment or volcanic deposits,the density of which is substantially lower than the adopted topographic density used in Helmert's definition of heights.The same applies to geoid modeling errors.In this study,we investigate these errors in the Hong Kong territory,where topographic density is about 20%lower than the density of 2670 kg/m^(3).We use the digital rock density model to estimate the effect of topographic density variations on the geoid and orthometric heights.Our results show that this effect on the geoid and Helmert orthometric heights reach maxima of about 2.1 and 0.5 cm,respectively.Both results provide clear evidence that rock density models are essential in physical geodesy applications involving gravimetric geoid modeling and orthometric height determination despite some criticism that could be raised regarding the reliability of these density models.However,in regions dominated by sedimentary and igneous rocks,the geological information is essential in these applications because topographic densities are substantially lower than the average density of 2670 kg/m^(3),thus introducing large systematic errors in geoid and orthometric heights.

Blast-induced ground vibration prediction in granite quarries:An application of gene expression programming,ANFIS,and sine cosine algorithm optimized ANN

Blasting of rocks has intrinsic environmental impacts such as ground vibration,which can interfere with the safety of lives and property.Hence,accurate prediction of the environmental impacts of blasting is imperative as the empirical models are not accurate as evident in the literature.Therefore,there is need to consider some robust predictive models for accurate prediction results.Gene expression programming(GEP),adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system(ANFIS),and sine cosine algorithm optimized artificial neural network(SCA-ANN)models are proposed for predicting the blast-initiated ground vibration in five granite quarries.The input parameters into the models are the distance from the point of blasting to the point of measurement(D),the weight of charge per delay(W),rock density(q),and the Schmidt rebound hardness(SRH)value while peak particle velocity(PPV)is the targeted output.100 datasets were used in developing the proposed models.The performance of the proposed models was examined using the coefficient of determination(R2)and error analysis.The R2 values obtained for the GEP,ANFIS,and SCA-ANN models are 0.989,0.997,and 0.999,respectively,while their errors are close to zero.The proposed models are compared with an empirical model and are found to outperform the empirical model.

A pre-Paleogene unconformity surface of the Sikeshu Sag, Junggar Basin: Lithological, geophysical and geochemical implications for the transportation of hydrocarbons

The unconformity surface at the bottom of the Paleogene is one of the most important migration pathways in the Sikeshu Sag of the Junggar Basin,which consists of three layers：upper coarse clastic rock,lower weathering crust and leached zone.The upper coarse clastic rock is characterized by higher density and lower SDT and gamma-ray logging parameters,while the lower weathering crust displays opposite features.The transport coefficient of the unconformity surface is controlled by its position in respect to the basal sandstone; it is higher in the ramp region but lower in the adjacent uplifted and sag areas.The content of saturated hydrocarbons increases with the decrease of the content of nonhydrocarbons and asphaltenes.The content of benzo[c] carbazole decreases as the content of benzo[a]carbazole and [alkyl carbazole]/[alkyl ＋ benzo carbazole] increases.This suggests that the unconformity surface is an efficient medium for the transportation of hydrocarbons.

Advances in interaction mechanism of water(gas) on clay minerals in China

Dealing with large-scale deformations in soft-rock tunnels is a very important issue in soft-rock tunnel engineering. The mechanism of this large-scale deformation is closely related to the physical and chemical properties of soft rock, interaction between soft rock and water, and interaction between soft rock and gas contained in soft rock. In order to gain a better predictive understanding of the governing principles associated with this phenomenon, we used experimental and theoretical methods to study the effects of point defect on physical and chemical properties of soft rock and mechanism of interaction between water(gas) and soft rock. Firstly, we calculated the impurity formation energies and transition energy levels of defects by using the first-principle calculation, the results showed the microscopic mechanism of defects substitution in kaolinite and effects of defects on the structure of kaolinite. Moreover,comparing the experimental and theoretical results, we found the mechanism of interaction between water and soft rock. The results show that water is one of the most important factors which can induce various kinds of geological disasters. At last, the interaction between soft rock and surrounding gas as CO2, CH4 and CO is disused, the influence of surrounding gas on soft rock should not be ignored.