基于Rockfall的沟谷区高位危岩体危险性评估

为了降低高位危岩体对沟谷区建设用地威胁,以沟谷区内某商住小区为例,探讨高位危岩体危险性评估结果。通过资料收集和现场调查,采用Rockfall模型软件计算沟谷区高位危岩体对小区现状地质灾害危险性,评估了防治措施情景下的地质灾害危险性。用Rockfall模拟软件计算出沟谷区内危岩体现状和设计情景条件下的运动路径和最远威胁距离,确定建设用地红线范围内的地质灾害危险性结果。结果表明,现状条件下沟谷区建设用地红线范围内危险性中等区域面积112.15 m2,设计情景下建设用地红线范围均为危险性小的区域。

Integrated hazard assessment of rockfall incidents in the Cap Aokas Cliff Region

Rock fall accidents in mountainous cliff areas have significant consequences for human life and transportation.This study aimed to evaluate the rockfall hazard in the Cap Aokas cliff region located along the northeast coast of Algeria by identifying the key factors contributing to rockfall occurrence.We employed a combination of kinematic analysis,Matterocking method,and 3D trajectory simulations to determine zones that are susceptible to rockfall mobilization.By using a probabilistic and structural approach in conjunction with photogrammetry,we identified the controlling factors.The kinematic analysis revealed the presence of five discontinuity families,which indicated both plane and wedge failure modes.The 3D trajectory simulations demonstrated that the falling blocks followed the stream direction.We then validated the susceptibility maps generated from the analysis using aerial photos and historical rockfall events.The findings of this study enhance our understanding of rockfall phenomena and provide valuable insights for the development of effective strategies to mitigate rockfall hazards.

RockFall软件在铁路边坡危岩失稳运动路径分析中的应用

山区铁路岩质边坡坡体失稳和危岩崩塌等灾害,对线路运营安全有潜在风险。危岩体发生破坏时的运动方式受下部斜坡的物质组成、边坡坡角、危岩体几何形状、岩体性质等的影响,运动距离、运动方式及冲击能量各不相同。采用RockFall软件模拟了丰沙铁路北侧山体危岩体破坏后的运动规律,得出危岩体破坏后沿坡面的运动路径、运动速度、冲击能量等信息,可为崩塌落石防治措施选择提供合理依据。

Rockfall Hazard Analyses and Rockfall Protection along the Adriatic Coast of Croatia

During the last decade, large rockfalls occurred on the steep limestone slopes along the Adriatic Coast of Croatia, causing injury to people and serious damage to buildings and traffic facilities. The rockfalls along the limestone slopes were caused by unfavorable characteristics of the rock mass, weathering in combination with heavy rainfall and artificial influences during highway construction. Rockfall protection projects were conducted to protect human lives and facilities from future rockfalls. The rockfall protection program started with rockfall hazard analyses to identify the potential of rockfalls to occur and the potential consequences. At the locations of hazards where related risks were determined, detailed field investigations were conducted. Based on the indentified characteristics of potentially unstable rock masses, analyses of movement and resulting pathways were conducted. The trajectories, impact energy and the height of bouncing are dependent on slope geometry, slope surface roughness and rockfall block characteristics. Two protection measure approaches were adopted： prevention of rockfalls by removing potentially unstable rock mass or installation of rock mass support systems and suspending running rockfall masses with rockfall protection barriers. In this paper, rockfall hazard determination, rockfall analyses and rockfall protection designs for rockfall protection systems at selected locations on the limestone slopes along the Adriatic coast of Croatia are presented.

Investigating the performance of passageway corridor for ground reinforced embankments against rockfall

Rockfall disasters can result in damages to various structures such as highways and buildings.Ground reinforced embankments(GRE) are one of the barrier types used to prevent rockfall. GRE absorb the impact energy of the hitting rock blocks by the movement of fine soil particles triggered by the penetration of the rock in the soil. In this process,stresses in the wall are distributed in both the transverse and longitudinal directions. GREs on the valley slopes can be hundreds of meters long, so such structures cause difficulty in transition to valley slope behind the embankments. Especially, access to areas such as agricultural, pasture or forest lands behind the GRE becomes a challenge. The current paper presents the design of passageways in GRE using the finite element method to provide safe corridors at several different parts within the hundreds of meters long structures. A total of 4 different passageway designs for GRE were developed. Each finite element model was subjected to rockfall with different kinetic energies of 500, 1000 and 3000kJ. The obtained results showed that 44% increase in structure volume increased the impact capacity from 500 kJ to 3000kJ.Furthermore, the critical displacement caused by rockfall impact with an energy of 3000 kJ was reduced by 31%. It was determined that the support applied with the reinforced concrete wall did not reach the desired energy absorption value due to its rigid structure, and even collapsed at 3000 kJ.

Influence of uncertainties: A focus on block volume and shape assessment for rockfall analysis

Block size and shape depend on the state of fracturing of the rock mass and,consequently,on the geometrical features of the discontinuity sets(mainly orientation,spacing,and persistence).The development of non-contact surveying techniques applied to rock mass characterization offers significant advantages in terms of data numerosity,precision,and accuracy,allowing for performing a rigorous statistical analysis of the database.This fact is particularly evident when dealing with rockfall phenomena:uncertainties in spacing and orientation data could significantly amplify the uncertainties connected with in situ block size distribution(IBSD),which represents a relation between each possible value of the volume and its probability of not being exceeded.In addition to volume,block shape can be considered as a derived parameter that suffers from uncertainties.Many attempts to model the possible trajectories of blocks considering their actual shape have been proposed,aiming to reproduce the effect on motion.The authors proposed analytical equations for calculating the expected value and variance of volume distributions,based on the geometrically correct equation for block volume in the case of three discontinuity sets.They quantify and discuss the effect of both volume and shape variability through a synthetic case study.Firstly,a fictitious rock mass with three discontinuity sets is assumed as the source of rockfall.The IBSDs obtained considering different spacing datasets are quantitatively compared,and the overall uncertainty effect is assessed,proving the correctness of the proposed equations.Then,block shape distributions are obtained and compared,confirming the variability of shapes within the same IBSD.Finally,a comparison between trajectory simulations on the synthetic slope is reported,aiming to highlight the effects of the propagation of uncertainties to block volume and shape estimation.The benefits of an approach that can quantify the uncertainties are discussed from the perspective of improving the reliability of simulations.

Numerical simulation on the impact characteristics between rockfalls of different shapes and gravel cushions

The shape of rockfalls significantly affects the performance of the impact cushion,which is manifested by the difference in the impact force and the penetration depth of the rockfall during the collision.In this study,we built the collision numerical model between rockfalls and cushions based on the results from previous studies,and simulated the collision process of rockfalls with four different shapes(cylindrical,cuboid,spherical,and cubic)and different cushions.Essential parameters when rockfalls impact cushions are calculated,including the maximum impact forces on the surface and bottom of the cushions and the maximum penetration depth of the rockfall.The results showed that the maximum impact force on the surface and the bottom of the cushions varies with the rockfall shapes.The maximum impact force on the cushion surface caused by cylindrical rockfall is the smallest,followed by the cuboid rockfall,the cube rockfall,and the spherical rockfall.The maximum impact force at the cushion bottom also follows this trend.However,the penetration depth of cuboid rockfall is the smallest,followed by the cylindrical rockfall,the cubic rockfall,and the spherical rockfall.The results of this study provide more extensive theoretical support for rockfall disaster prevention using gravel cushions.

Rockfall hazard assessment in a natural and historical site: The case of ancient Kilistra settlement(Konya), Turkey

The ancient Kilistra settlement is a natural,historical and cultural heritage site in Central Anatolia(Turkey), which makes it an attractive destination for tourists. However, the settlement located on a hill with steep hillsides has suffered from rockfall events,causing the destruction of some historical buildings.The rockfall risk in the region continues to create a serious danger today for land users and visitors during uncontrolled tourist visits. This paper offers an assessment of rockfall hazard for the ancient Kilistra settlement based on experimental investigation and numerical analyses. For the study, comprehensive field studies were carried out, including the identification of slope profiles, scanline surveys on discontinuities and stability analysis of the slopes. The location and size of the fallen, detached and hanging blocks were also identified. Geomechanical properties of the geological units were determined, and also the rockfall risk rating method was applied for the evaluation of the rockfall hazard risk. Runout distance, bounce height, kinetic energy as well as the velocity of the detached and hanging blocks were determined by using twodimensional rockfall analyses. Based on the results from the rockfall analyses, possible rockfall-based danger zones have been defined for the ancient Kilistra settlement and its close vicinity. The results of this study point at an immediate necessity for the installation of support systems. Findings of the study also offer preliminary data for the description of risk administration strategies and also provide scientific contribution to the study of the hazard and risk resulting from rockfall phenomena.

Evaluating rockfalls at a historical settlement in the Ihlara Valley(Cappadocia, Turkey) using kinematic, numerical, 2D trajectory, and risk rating methods

Rockfalls are one of the most dangerous natural events in hilly terrains, and they substantially threaten residential areas and transport corridors in these environments. This study is aimed to analyze the risk of rockfall from a slope to nearby houses in a historical settlement with past rockfall histories. It contains numerous applications to study rockfall danger from different points of view(e.g., kinematics,numerical stability analysis, risk assessment, 2D trajectory). The rockfall kinematics revealed the statistics for different structurally controlled failure modes among the surveyed slope discontinuities,especially wedge type and block toppling were the most significant ones. Finite element analysis showed that the slope was stable under the natural condition with a safety factor of 2.19. The rockfall risk rating system calculated a medium risk for the houses downstream. Based on the field measurements, a possible rockfall profile was determined and located as an input in the 2D rockfall trajectory program. The rigid-body impact model runs utilized various shapes and sizes of blocks to simulate the rockfall events realistically. According to the 2D trajectory model results, there was no rockfall danger for the investigated downslope houses. The study showed the importance of using different analysis techniques to solve rockfall risk in protected areas based on scientific and rational approaches.

基于无人机和Rockfall Analyst的崩塌落石特征分析与运动学模拟--以察雅县崩塌落石为例

崩塌落石是高陡边坡的一种浅表部破坏方式,突发性强且随机性大,是严重的地质灾害之一。分析崩塌落石特征,并对落石进行运动学模拟对于灾害防治具有重大意义。以往的研究对于崩塌落石的运动学模拟大多基于二维模拟软件,人为控制了运动方向,具有一定的干扰性,部分独立的三维模拟软件计算时考虑的参数较多,增加了模拟难度。在调查方式上,无人机技术凭借机动灵活、工作效益高成为一种趋势。因此,文章以昌都市察雅县北西侧斜坡为研究区,结合现场调查和无人机三维倾斜摄影技术,调查分析了斜坡崩塌落石特征,通过三维模型获取了岩体结构面信息,分析了岩体稳定性;基于GIS环境下三维落石模拟软件Rockfall Analyst,根据历史崩塌轨迹采用参数反演的方法获得研究区斜坡下垫面参数,对物源区块石进行了运动轨迹、速度和弹跳高度的数值模拟。结果表明:(1)斜坡上主要存在三处物源区,岩体整体受三组主控结构面控制,不同结构面之间的组合破坏和冻融侵蚀影响下的岩体差异性分化是造成岩体失稳的主要因素;(2)通过模拟的运动轨迹确定了落石的威胁范围,弹跳高度和速度轨迹可为崩塌落石灾害防治的位置和防治措施的选择上提供地质依据。

危岩崩塌运动轨迹特征的Rockfall数值模拟研究

运用Rockfall数值模拟软件,对危岩体的稳定性进行了分析,通过设定危岩体的法向恢复系数、切向恢复系数和动摩擦系数等参数,绘制出危岩体的运动轨迹、能量分布和弹跳高度数值模拟图,为指导防护体系的结构设计、确保防治效果提供了依据。

Comparing rockfall hazard and risk assessment procedures along roads for different planning purposes

Hazard and risk assessment procedures of different types of rockfall were analyzed to compare their outcomes when they are applied to the same case study.Although numerous methodologies are available in literature,rockfall hazard and risk analyses are often limited to standard estimations,affected by a margin of uncertainty,especially when relevant engineering projects are about to be realized.Based on the design purpose,different types of approaches can be chosen among the qualitative and quantitative ones available in literature,which allow different levels of analysis.One of the main criticisms related to rockfall events is the risk affecting linear structures,such as road or railways,due both to their strategic relevance for trade and communications and to the great entity of the exposed value(traffic units)traveling along them.In this perspective,a comparison between the qualitative method known as Evolving Rockfall Hazard Assessment(EHRA),the semi-quantitative modified Rockfall Hazard Rating System(RHRS)and the quantitative Rockfall Risk Management(RoMa)approach is herein commented according to a practical application to a case study.It is the case of the rockfall threat along slopes crossed by a strategic road connecting two of the most known spots of eastern Sicily(Italy),at the Taormina tourist complex.Data were retrieved from both recent literature and technical surveys on field.Achieved results highlight how the approaches are affected by a different level of detail and uncertainty,arising also by some necessary assumption that must be taken into account,especially when mitigation measures or territory planning have to be designed.Achieved results can be also taken into account for similar studies worldwide,in order to choose the most suitable procedure based on the design purpose.This is indeed crucial in the perspective of the optimization of time and economic resources in the territorial planning practice.

基于PFC^3D和Rockfall的中武山危岩体数值模拟研究

基于颗粒流PFC^3D理论及方法,结合无人机高精度航拍影像数据,对中武山危岩体失稳过程进行数值模拟方法研究。通过PFC^3D构建三维地质模型进行崩塌模拟,计算得出危岩体的运动路径。在模拟的运动路径中选取6个运动剖面,采用Rockfall软件进行二维运动过程计算,得出腾跃高度、冲击能量、岩块速度等计算结果。中武山危岩体模拟结果表明,PFC^3D三维运动模型结合Rockfall软件的数值模拟方法,可较好地模拟危岩体的失稳运动过程。研究方法相比以往研究具有更好的可视化特性,研究得到的相关参数可为后续灾害防治工作提供参考,进而可提出有针对性的治理措施。研究结果对防灾减灾工程具有重要的现实意义。

基于无人机与Rockfall的危岩体结构特征识别与运动规律模拟

赤水红层地区高陡边坡危岩体具有位置险峻、隐蔽性强等特点,致使危岩体的识别成为困扰工程建设的巨大难题。针对研究区危岩体调查难以开展的问题,利用无人机倾斜摄影技术,获取带有空间地理坐标的照片。运用Agisoft PhotoScan软件构建了唐家屋基边坡高清数字地表模型(DSM),利用三点不共线可确定一个平面的原理,在模型中提取结构面空间点云坐标,计算出结构面产状,并对危岩体的结构特征进行提取,确定了4处典型危岩体。基于三维模型对危岩体的体积进行了测量,通过定性分析得知,危岩体处于欠稳定状态。利用Rockfall软件对4个危岩体的崩落运动特征进行模拟,发现危岩体发生崩塌破坏后滚石会对坡脚房屋和公路造成破坏。研究结果对高陡边坡危岩体的勘察、稳定性评价及影响范围确定有重要参考价值。

基于Rockfall的危岩体危险范围预测及风险评价——以九寨沟景区悬沟危岩体为例

2017年8月8日九寨沟Ms7.0级地震诱发了数以千计的崩滑地质灾害,造成景区内道路阻塞,设施损毁,严重威胁到了来往游客及景区内住民的生命财产安全。因此对景区进行地质灾害风险性评价尤为重要。本文以景区内悬沟崩塌危岩体为研究对象,通过分析危岩威胁范围、可能造成的危害程度,承灾体的抗灾能力以及流动承灾体受损情况,建立风险评价模型,将风险评价进行量化。评价结果表明,危岩带1、危岩体1为低风险。危岩带3为中等风险;危岩带2为高风险,严重威胁到了坡脚公路及来往游客的生命财产安全,要高度重视,尽快着手防护措施设计,避免造成更大的损失。

Integrated rockfall hazard and risk assessment along highways: An example for Jiuzhaigou area after the 2017 Ms 7.0 Jiuzhaigou earthquake, China

This work addresses the integrated assessment of rockfall(including landslides) hazards and risk for S301, Z120, and Z128 highways, which are important transportation corridors to the world heritage site Jiuzhai Valley National Park in Sichuan, China. The highways are severely threatened by rockfalls or landslide events after the 2017 Ms 7.0 Jiuzhaigou earthquake. Field survey(September 14-18 th, 2017, May 15-20 th, 2018, and September 9-17 th, 2018), unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV), and satellite image identified high-relief rockfalls and road construction rockfalls or landslides along the highway. Rockfall hazard is qualitatively evaluated using block count, velocity, and flying height through a 3D rockfall simulation at local and regional scales. Rockfall risk is quantitatively assessed with rockfall event probability, propagation probability, spatial probability, and vulnerability for different block volume classes. Approximately 21.5%, 20.5%, and 5.3% of the road mileage was found to be subject to an unacceptable(UA) risk class for vehicles along S301, Z120, and Z128 highways, respectively. Approximately 20.1% and 3.3% of the road mileage belong to the UA risk class for tourists along Z120 and Z128 highways, respectively. Results highlighted that high-relief rockfall events were intensively located at K50 to K55(Guanmenzi to Ganheba) and K70 to K72(Jiudaoguai to Shangsizhai Village) road mileages along S301 highway and KZ18 to KZ22(Five Flower Lake to Arrow Bamboo Lake) road mileages, KZ30(Swan Lake to Virgin Forests), and KY10.5 kilometers in Jiuzhai Valley. Rockfalls in these locations were classified under the UA risk class and medium to very high hazard index. Road construction rockfalls were located at K67(Jiuzhai Paradise) and K75–K76 kilometers along S301 highway and KZ12 to KZ14(Rhino Lake to Nuorilang Waterfall), KZ16.5 to KZ17.5(Golden Bell Lake), KY5(Lower Seasonal Lake), and KY14(Upper Seasonal Lake) kilometers along Z120 and Z128 highway in Jiuzhai Valley. Rockfalls in these areas were within a reasonable practicable risk to UA risk class and very low to medium hazard index. Finally, defensive measures, including flexible nets, concrete walls, and artificial tunnels, could be selected appropriately on the basis of the rockfall hazard index and risk class. This study revealed the integration between qualitative rockfall hazard assessment and quantitative rockfall risk assessment, which is crucial in studying rockfall prevention and mitigation.

Investigation of rockfall-prone road cut slope near Lengpui Airport,Mizoram,India

Rockfall is one of severe natural hazards that are frequently reported in northeast region of India. It carries rock block falling from the cliff with high velocities and energies which can result in damages to vehicles, disruption to transportation, injuries and fatalities. The massive rockfall event which occurred in April 2017 on the highway NH-44 A, near Lengpui Airport, blocked the traffic for 1 d, and fortunately,no casualties were reported as the event occurred in the night. This is the only highway connecting the Aizawl city to the airport and the region is highly prone to rockfall events. Hence assessment of rockfall along this highway is necessary. In the current study, rockfall hazard assessment has been carried out on three locations by rockfall hazard rating system(RHRS). During pre-failure analysis, the result shows that most hazardous slopes have RHRS score of 639. The slopes were found to be vulnerable and later on the rockfall activity occurred. Three-dimensional(3 D) stability analysis has been carried out using 3 DEC software package to analyze the failure behavior and to decide the rockfall-prone zone(unstable blocks)for slope. The total displacement of 2.24 cm and velocity of 2,25 mm/s of the failed block have been observed in the numerical analysis. Further, the rockfall vulnerable zone(unstable blocks) is considered to determine the parameters such as run-out distance, bounce height and energies of the falling rock blocks. The maximum total kinetic energy of 5047 kJ has been observed in the numerical analysis with the maximum run-out distance up to 18 m.

Analysis of Rockfall and Its Impact on the Cut-and-Cover Tunnel in Dynamics

This paper presents the effect of thickness of Buffer layer on the safety of cut-and-cover tunnel under the given magnitude and height of rockfall, and the limit load of the structure. To establish calculating models of rockfall in different conditions, the dynamics of the fall down to the surface of the slope is taken into account and the exterior characteristics of the rockfall is analyzed. We have derived the formula for calculating velocity of rocks before and after collision, calculated the impact load upon the structures below and the limit load, and compared the impact force and limit load to judge the safety of the structure. Finally, the validity of models is approved by the safety evaluation of cut-and-cover tunnel in the mouth of Heshang Mountain in Nandan County.

Rolling motion behavior of rockfall on gentle slope:an experimental approach

The effects of slope surface material, slope gradient, block shape, and block mass conditions on rockfall rolling velocity were estimated with orthogonal test approach. Visual analysis shows that the importance of the factors is slope surface material > slope gradient > block shape > block mass. All the factors except block mass have the F value greater than the critical value, suggesting that these three factors are the key factors affecting the rockfall rolling velocity. Factor interaction analysis shows that the effect of the slope gradient relies largely on the slope surface conditions, and the block shape has little influence if the slope gradient is larger than a critical value. An empirical model considering the three key factors is proposed to estimate the rolling velocity, of which the error is limited to 5% of the testing value. This model is validated by 73 field tests, and the prediction shows excellent correlation with the site test. Thus, this analysis can be used as a tool in the rockfall behavior analysis.

Rockfall seismic features analysis based on in situ tests:frequency, amplitude, and duration

In the seismic event classification,determining the seismic features of rockfall is significantly important for the automatic classification of seismic events because of the huge amount of raw data recorded by seismic stations in continuous monitoring. At the same time, the rockfall seismic features are still not completely understood.This study concentrates on the rockfall frequency content, amplitude(ground velocity), seismic waveform and duration analysis, of an artificial rockfall test at Torgiovannetto(a former quarry in Central Italy). A total of 90 blocks were released in the test, and their seismic signals and moving trajectories were recorded by four tri-axial seismic stations and four cameras, respectively. In the analysis processing,all the artificial rockfall signal traces were cut separately and the seismic features were extracted individually and automatically. In this study, the relationships between a) frequency content and impacted materials, b) frequency content and the distance between block releasing position and seismic station(source-receiver distance) were discussed. As a result, we found that the frequency content of rockfall focuses on 10-60 Hz and 80-90 Hz within a source-receiver distance of 200 m, and it is well correlated with impacted material and source-receiver distance. To evaluate the difference between earthquake and rockfall, 23 clear earthquake signals recorded in a seven month-long continuous seismic monitoring, carried out with the four seismic stations, were picked out, according to the Italian national earthquakes database(INGV). On these traces we performed the same analysis as in the artificial rockfall traces, and two parameters were defined to separate rockfall events from earthquake noise. The first one, the amplitude ratio, is related to the amplitude variation of rockfall between two stations and is greater than that of earthquakes, because of the higher attenuation occurring for rockfall events, which consists in high frequencies whereas for earthquakes it consists in low frequencies. The other parameter, the shape of waveform of signal trace, showed a significant difference between rockfall and earthquake and that could be a complementary feature to discriminate between both. This analysis of artificial rockfall is a first step helpful to understand the seismic characteristics of rockfall, and useful for rockfall seismic events classification in seismic monitoring of slope.