Highly-Efficient Aerodynamic Optimal Design of Rotor Airfoil Using Viscous Adjoint Method

In order to overcome the efficiency problem of the conventional gradient-based optimal design method,a highly-efficient viscous adjoint-based RANS equations method is applied to the aerodynamic optimal design of hovering rotor airfoil.The C-shaped body-fitted mesh is firstly automatically generated around the airfoil by solving the Poisson equations,and the Navier-Stokes(N-S)equations combined with Spalart-Allmaras(S-A)one-equation turbulence model are used as the governing equations to acquire the reliable flowfield variables.Then,according to multi-constrained characteristics of the optimization of high lift/drag ratio for hovering rotor airfoil,its corresponding adjoint equations,boundary conditions and gradient expressions are newly derived.On these bases,two representative rotor airfoils,NACA0012 airfoil and SC1095 airfoil,are selected as numerical examples to optimize their synthesized aerodynamic characteristics about lift/drag ratio in hover,and better aerodynamic performance of optimal airfoils are obtained compared with the baseline.Furthermore,the new designed rotor with the optimized rotor airfoil has better hover aerodynamic characteristics compared with the baseline rotor.In contrast to the baseline airfoils optimized by the finite difference method,it is demonstrated that the adjoint optimal algorithm itself is practical and highly-efficient for the aerodynamic optimization of hover rotor airfoil.

Numerical Study on Low-Reynolds Compressible Flows around Mars Helicopter Rotor Blade Airfoil

High-speed rotor rotation under the low-density condition creates a special low-Reynolds compressible flow around the rotor blade airfoil where the compressibility effect on the laminar separated shear layer occurs. However, the compressibility effect and shock wave generation associated with the increase in the Mach number (M) and the trend change due to their interference have not been clarified. The purpose is to clear the compressibility effect and its impact of shock wave generation on the flow field and aerodynamics. Therefore, we perform a two-dimensional unsteady calculation by Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis using the CLF5605 airfoil used in the Mars helicopter Ingenuity, which succeeded in its first flight on Mars. The calculation conditions are set to the Reynolds number (Re) at 75% rotor span in hovering (Re = 15,400), and the Mach number was varied from incompressible (M = 0.2) to transonic (M = 1.2). The compressible fluid dynamics solver FaSTAR developed by the Japan aerospace exploration agency (JAXA) is used, and calculations are performed under multiple conditions in which the Mach number and angle of attack (α) are swept. The results show that a flow field is similar to that in the Earth’s atmosphere above M = 1.0, such as bow shock at the leading edge, whereas multiple λ-type shock waves are observed over the separated shear layer above α = 3° at M = 0.80. However, no significant difference is found in the Cp distribution around the airfoil between M = 0.6 and M = 0.8. From the results, it is found that multiple λ-type shock waves have no significant effect on the airfoil surface pressure distribution, the separated shear layer effect is dominant in the surface pressure change and aerodynamic characteristics.

Aerodynamic optimization of rotor airfoil based on multi-layer hierarchical constraint method

Rotor airfoil design is investigated in this paper. There are many difficulties for this highdimensional multi-objective problem when traditional multi-objective optimization methods are used. Therefore, a multi-layer hierarchical constraint method is proposed by coupling principal component analysis(PCA) dimensionality reduction and e-constraint method to translate the original high-dimensional problem into a bi-objective problem. This paper selects the main design objectives by conducting PCA to the preliminary solution of original problem with consideration of the priority of design objectives. According to the e-constraint method, the design model is established by treating the two top-ranking design goals as objective and others as variable constraints. A series of bi-objective Pareto curves will be obtained by changing the variable constraints, and the favorable solution can be obtained by analyzing Pareto curve spectrum. This method is applied to the rotor airfoil design and makes great improvement in aerodynamic performance. It is shown that the method is convenient and efficient, beyond which, it facilitates decision-making of the highdimensional multi-objective engineering problem.

Experiments on unsteady vortex flowfield of typical rotor airfoils under dynamic stall conditions

A new experiment for airfoil dynamic stall is conducted by employing the advanced par- ticle image velocimetry （PIV） technology in an open-return wind tunnel. The aim of this experimen- tal investigation is to demonstrate the influences of different motion parameters on the convection velocity, position and strength of leading edge vortex （LEV） of airfoil under different dynamic stall conditions. Two different typical rotor airfoils, OA209 and SC1095, are measured at different free stream velocities, oscillation frequencies, and angles of attack. It is demonstrated by the measured data that the airfoil with larger leading edge radius could notably decrease the strength of LEV. The angle of attack （AoA） of airfoil can obviously influence the dynamic stall characteristics of airfoil, and the LEV would be effectively inhibited by decreasing the mean pitch angle. In addition, the con- vection velocity of LEV is estimated in this measurement, and the results demonstrate that the influ- ence of airfoil shape on convection velocity of LEV is limited, but the convection velocity of LEV would be increased by enlarging the oscillation frequency. Meanwhile, the convection velocity of LEV is a time variant value, and this value would increase as the LEV convects to the trailing edge of airfoil.

Numerical investigation of dynamic stall suppression of rotor airfoil via improved co-flow jet

The decrease in aerodynamic performance caused by the shock-induced dynamic stall of an advancing blade and the dynamic stall of a retreating blade at low speed and high angles of attack limits the flight speed of a helicopter.However,little research has been carried on the flow control methods employed to suppress both the dynamic stall induced by a shock wave and the dynamic stall occurring at high angles of attack.The dynamic stall suppression of a rotor airfoil by Co-Flow Jet(CFJ)is numerically investigated in this work.The flowfield of the airfoil is simulated by solving Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations based on the sliding mesh technique.Firstly,to improve the effect of a traditional CFJ on suppressing rotor airfoil shock-induced dynamic stall,an improved CFJ—a CFJ-sloping slot is proposed.Research shows that the CFJsloping slot suppresses the shock-induced dynamic stall more effectively than a traditional CFJ.Moreover,the improved CFJ can also suppress the dynamic stall of rotor airfoil at low speed and high angles of attack.The improved CFJ proposed in this paper is an effective flow control method that simultaneously suppresses the dynamic stall of the advancing and retreating blades.The mechanism of the improved CFJ in suppressing the dynamic stall of the rotor airfoil is studied,and a comparison is made between the improved CFJ and the traditional CFJ in terms of dynamic stall suppression at high and low speed.Finally,the effect of improved CFJ parameters(the jet momentum coefficient,the position of the injection/suction slot,and the size of the injection/suction slot)on shock-induced dynamic stall suppression is analyzed.

Aerodynamic shape optimization for alleviating dynamic stall characteristics of helicopter rotor airfoil

In order to alleviate the dynamic stall effects in helicopter rotor, the sequential quadratic programming （SQP） method is employed to optimize the characteristics of airfoil under dynamic stall conditions based on the SC1095 airfoil. The geometry of airfoil is parameterized by the class-shape-transformation （CST） method, and the C-topology body-fitted mesh is then automati- cally generated around the airfoil by solving the Poisson equations. Based on the grid generation technology, the unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes （RANS） equations are chosen as the governing equations for predicting airfoil flow field and the highly-efficient implicit scheme of lower-upper symmetric Gauss-Seidel （LU-SGS） is adopted for temporal discretization. To capture the dynamic stall phenomenon of the rotor more accurately, the Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model is employed to close the RANS equations. The optimized airfoil with a larger leading edge radius and camber is obtained. The leading edge vortex and trailing edge separation of the opti- mized airfoil under unsteady conditions are obviously weakened, and the dynamic stall character- istics of optimized airfoil at different Mach numbers, reduced frequencies and angles of attack are also obviously improved compared with the baseline SC1095 airfoil. It is demonstrated that the optimized method is effective and the optimized airfoil is suitable as the helicopter rotor airfoil.

旋翼翼型动态失速非定常介质阻挡放电流动控制研究

针对动态失速导致旋翼翼型气动性能恶化的问题,借助介质阻挡放电非对称构型激励器,通过脉动压力传感器测量,开展了旋翼翼型动态失速非定常等离子体流动控制研究。重点对非定常等离子体控制机理和非定常激励参数影响进行了探究,试验验证了非定常等离子体激励的良好控制能力。研究表明:非定常流动控制可以减弱翼型的升力骤降,20%的占空比就足以取得明显的控制效果;激励频率F^(+)=1~2时的非定常控制效果最好,升力迟滞环面积减小16%,升力系数平均值提高6%。机理分析发现等离子体激励主要作用于动态失速涡脱落后,非定常激励明显削弱了动态失速涡脱落对翼型气动力的不利影响,同时非定常激励可以产生更多的涡以促进前缘逆压梯度的恢复和流动的重附着。

Numerical Optimization on Aerodynamic/Stealth Characteristics of Airfoil Based on CFD/CEM Coupling Method

Based on computational fluid dynamics （CFD）/computational eleetromagnetics method （CEM） coupling method and surrogate model optimization techniques, an integration design method about aerodynamic/stealth characteristics of airfoil is established. The O-type body-fitted and orthogonal grid around airfoil is first generated by using the Poisson equations, in which the points per wave and the normal range satisfy the aerodynamic and electromagnetic calculation accuracy requirement. Then the aerodynamic performance of airfoil is calculated by sol- ving the Navier-Stokes （N-S） equations with Baldwin-Lomax （B-L） turbulence model. The stealth characteristics of airfoil are simulated by using finite volume time domain （FVTD） method based on the Maxwell＇s equations, Steger-Warming flux splitting and the third-order MUSCL scheme. In addition, based upon the surrogate model optimization technique with full factorial design （FFD） and radial basis function （RBF）, an integration design about aerodynamic/stealth characteristics of rotor airfoil is conducted by employing the CFD/CEM coupling meth- od. The aerodynamic/stealth characteristics of NACA series airfoils with different maximum thickness and camber combinations are discussed. Finally, by choosing suitable lift-to-drag ratio and radar cross section （RCS） ampli- tudes of rotor airfoil in four important scattering regions as the objective function and constraint, the compromised airfoil with high lift-to-drag ratio and low scattering characteristics is designed via systemic and comprehensive ana- lyses.

翼型加厚对桨扇性能的影响研究

为研究翼型加厚对桨扇性能的影响,通过两种不同的加厚方式对桨扇翼型进行加厚,采用NUMECA软件对加厚前后的对转桨扇进行三维流场数值模拟,对比加厚前后对转桨扇的性能变化。结果表明:在同一飞行状态下,无论是翼型整体加厚,还是只改变翼型最大厚度,对转桨扇的性能都会下降;相比于整体加厚,只改变最大厚度则性能下降得更多;在不同来流攻角条件下,攻角越大,加厚前后的对转桨扇性能差值越大。

Investigation of Load Prediction on the Mexico Rotor Using the Technique of Determination of the Angle of Attack

Blade element moment（BEM） is a widely used technique for prediction of wind turbine aerodynamics performance,the reliability of airfoil data is an important factor to improve the prediction accuracy of aerodynamic loads and power using a BEM code.The method of determination of angle of attack on rotor blades developed by SHEN,et al is successfully used to extract airfoil data from experimental characteristics on the MEXICO（Model experiments in controlled conditions） rotor.Detailed surface pressure and particle image velocimetry（PIV） flow fields at different rotor azimuth positions are examined to determine the sectional airfoil data.The present technique uses simultaneously both PIV data and blade pressure data that include the actual flow conditions（for example,tunnel effects）,therefore it is more advantageous than other techniques which only use the blade loading（pressure data）.The extracted airfoil data are put into a BEM code,and the calculated axial and tangential forces are compared to both computations using BEM with Glauert＇s and SHEN＇s tip loss correction models and experimental data.The comparisons show that the present method of determination of angle of attack is correct,and the re-calculated forces have good agreements with the experiment.

旋翼翼型动态风洞试验技术研究

旋翼翼型的设计优化及性能确定亟须建立并发展翼型动态风洞试验技术。通过动力学仿真与结构优化设计,基于FL–11低速风洞研制出旋翼翼型两自由度动态试验装置,可实现俯仰/沉浮单自由或两自由度耦合运动,最高振荡频率达到5 Hz;基于FL–20连续式跨声速风洞研制出旋翼翼型高频高速动态试验装置,最高振荡频率达到17 Hz,试验最高雷诺数为5×106,模拟参数包线满足真实直升机参数要求;基于FL–14低速风洞研制出大尺度旋翼翼型动态试验装置,翼型模型弦长为800 mm,试验最高雷诺数达到4×106。完善了旋翼翼型动态试验精准测试相关技术,并开展了验证性试验,试验数据规律合理、量值可靠,表明试验系统及相关测试技术具有较高的可靠性,可为旋翼翼型动态气动特性试验评估提供重要的设备平台和技术支撑。

基于SST全湍流伴随的尾桨翼型优化方法

为解决当前翼型优化中广泛使用的冻结湍流黏性假设存在的固有缺陷和基于Spalart-Allmaras(S-A)全湍流伴随中湍流模型对气动力计算精度较差的问题,提出一套新的翼型优化方法,其耦合了全湍流连续伴随求解、剪切应力传递(SST)湍流模型封闭的雷诺平均Navier-Stokes(RANS)方程、自由变形参数化方法和动网格变形技术。基于所提方法,在气动力系数相较于S-A模型有更高捕捉精度的基础上,对NPL9615翼型以最大升阻比为优化目标,并与冻结湍流黏性假设方法对比。结果表明:所提方法将原有翼型的升阻比提高了16.39%,而冻结湍流黏性假设方法获得最终翼型的升阻比仅提高了原有翼型的9.84%,说明所提方法在最优外形的获取上要领先于冻结湍流黏性假设,并且当翼型周围的湍流动能显著提高时,其优势愈发扩大。

直升机尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验技术研究

目的 提升尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验安装和调试速率,加快考核出尾桨叶翼型段疲劳性能和疲劳寿命。方法 通过标定出尾桨叶翼型段挥舞与摆振标定系数和预扭角,分析出一种通过理论计算出安装攻角的方法,利用理论计算出的攻角指导实际安装攻角,调整攻角值到实际加载满足试验要求的载荷值,在尾桨叶翼型段安装和调试完成后进行了疲劳试验。结果 4件尾桨叶翼型段理论计算攻角值与实际安装攻角进行对比,安装攻角理论值与实际值偏差范围在1.5°以内,并且4件尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验载荷分布误差小于4%,疲劳性能满足6000飞行小时的疲劳寿命要求。结论 尾桨叶翼型疲劳试验中,理论计算攻角值具有加快估算安装攻角的意义,提升疲劳试验效率,试验调试载荷分布基本一致。经过尾桨叶翼型段疲劳试验验证后,试验件疲劳性能良好且稳定,为后续科研试验转入鉴定试验提供了基础。

旋翼翼型流动分离特性分析及高升力设计

旋翼翼型的失速特性影响了直升机旋翼在前飞和机动工况下的气动性能。采用CFD数值模拟方法,对OA212、OA206两种不同厚度旋翼翼型的大攻角分离流场进行分析,分别展现了后缘分离和前缘分离两种分离形态,并从压力分布的角度解释了引发不同分离形式的流动机理。然后从流动机理出发,开展了两个旋翼翼型的关于提升最大升力的参数影响研究。结果表明,增加OA212翼型的前缘曲率并减小后部反弯度,可有效抑制后缘分离涡,进而提升最大升力;而对于薄翼型OA206,无法通过微调前缘有效改善前缘分离特性。

基于Kriging模型的旋翼翼型优化设计研究

以基于进化算法的多目标优化方法为基础,结合多目标优化设计Pareto解的思想和约束处理机制,采用Kriging代理模型和基于B样条的翼型表示方法,建立了旋翼翼型的优化设计系统。代理模型采用均匀设计进行模型采样,在优化过程中根据EI(expected improvement)准则动态增加采样点来调整代理模型的精度。采用B样条方法进行翼型参数化,保证了翼型的光顺性。在翼型的气动性能分析中引入转捩模型提高阻力计算的精度。利用该系统对旋翼翼型进行了优化设计,经风洞试验验证,满足设计要求。

基于N-S方程的旋翼翼型优化设计方法

将N-S方程流场分析程序和序列二次规划结合起来,提出了一种工程实用的直升机旋翼翼型设计方法,以提高旋翼翼型在悬停、前飞和机动等多个设计点及在多种约束条件下的气动性能。由N-S方程计算得到的升力、阻力等气动参数构成目标函数,应用数值优化程序对其进行最优化。计算实例表明:本方法设计质量高,所需机时少,易于实施,有较大的工程应用价值。

旋翼翼型动态失速流场特性PIV试验研究及L-B模型修正

为测量翼型动态失速的非定常涡流场特性,采用3D-PIV技术,对典型直升机旋翼翼型SC1095的动态失速流场特性进行测量,发现涡在不同位置处的输运速度不同:位于翼型表面的涡的无量纲速度为0.39,位于尾迹区的涡的无量纲速度为0.55.利用前缘涡输运速度变化这一特征,改进了经典的翼型动态失速利什曼--贝多斯(Leishman--Beddoes,L--B)模型,将该模型中固定的涡时间常数修正为可以随涡位置变化的时变函数,修正后的模型计算得到翼型法向力峰值相对原L--B模型提升5%,力矩系数负峰值相对原L--B模型提升13%,与试验值相比更加吻合,表明修正后的翼型动态失速模型更好地体现了翼型前缘涡的物理特征.

旋翼翼型非定常动态失速特性的CFD模拟及参数分析

构建了一套基于运动嵌套网格技术和可压缩RANS方程的旋翼翼型非定常流动特性模拟的高效、高精度的CFD方法。首先,发展了基于Poisson方程求解的围绕翼型的粘性贴体正交网格生成方法,并提出了基于最小距离法(MDM)改进策略的运动嵌套网格生成方法,克服了弹簧法可能导致网格畸变的不足;其次,为准确模拟由湍流分离和气流再附引起的气动力的迟滞效应,基于RANS方程、双时间方法和高阶插值格式,建立了旋翼翼型非定常气动特性分析的高精度数值方法,并采用能够较好捕捉气流分离现象的S-A湍流模型;再次,针对旋翼后行桨叶动态失速时桨叶剖面来流速度较低、迎角较大的特点,为解决低来流速度时L-B半经验模型在旋翼翼型非定常动态失速计算中的局限性,并克服可压缩方程对低速流场计算收敛困难和精度低的问题,建立了基于Pletcher-Chen低速预处理方法、FAS多重网格法和隐式LU-SGS方法相结合的高效数值方法。应用发展的方法,分别针对NACA0012、SC1095旋翼翼型静态和轻度、深度动态失速进行计算,精确捕捉了气动力迟滞效应以及翼型前缘脱体涡的产生、对流和脱落过程,验证了本文方法的有效性;最后,着重针对NACA0012动态失速状态,开展了振荡参数对旋翼翼型非定常动态失速特性影响的分析,研究结果表明翼型迎角平均值、振幅及减缩频率的变化均能引起迟滞效应的改变并使得气动力峰值发生有规律的前、后移现象等。

旋翼翼型定常-非定常特性综合优化设计新方法

旋翼翼型对直升机旋翼及全机气动特性有至关重要的影响。结合直升机飞行特性及旋翼工作气动环境,本文提出了一种新的旋翼翼型设计理念,即定常优化设计同非定常设计相结合的方法来开展直升机旋翼专用翼型的优化设计。首先,建立旋翼翼型非定常气动特性的高精度CFD求解方法,以获得旋翼翼型在相应状态下的升力、阻力和力矩等气动参数。其次,针对旋翼翼型优化状态的特点,对于翼型静态优化及动态失速优化分别采用遗传算法和序列二次规划算法。在上述方法建立基础上,首先针对定常状态下的原始翼型(SC1095)进行优化设计,获得一个满足设计要求的静态优化翼型,进一步着重对该翼型在非定常状态下进行优化设计,成功地得到一种新翼型,并具有非常规外观。结果表明,在设计状态下,新翼型在保持良好定常气动特性的同时,明显减弱了动态失速状态下的分离涡,从而显著改善了翼型的动态失速特性。

翼型对旋翼悬停气动性能影响的CFD模拟分析

建立了一个基于高精度离散格式的旋翼悬停气动性能的N-S方程求解方法,用来精确分析翼型对旋翼气动特性的影响。为考虑细节流动对旋翼气动特性的影响,采用N-S方程描述桨叶附近的粘性流场,选用了S-A湍流模型。通量计算采用Roe-MUSCL格式的高精度算法。采用该方法首先模拟了C-T旋翼和BO-105旋翼,验证了该方法的有效性。然后,给出了一个参考旋翼,改变其旋翼翼型配置,数值模拟研究了旋翼翼型不同厚度、弯度及其变化位置、组合情况等对旋翼悬停气动特性的影响。通过对比旋翼悬停效率、桨叶升力与扭矩变化等多种计算结果,表明翼型对旋翼悬停气动性能有重要影响,并得出了一些提高旋翼气动性能的桨叶翼型设计方法。