Neighborhood Effects and Political Trust: A Multi-level Analysis of Chinese Rural-to-Urban Migrants’ Trust in County Government

Massive rural-to-urban migration in China is consequential for political trust: rural-to-urban migrants have been found to hold lower levels of trust in local government than their rural peers who choose to stay in the countryside (mean 4.92 and 6.34 out of 10, respectively, p < 0.001). This article explores why migrants have a certain level of political trust in their county-level government. Using data of rural-to-urban migrants from the China Family Panel Survey, this study performs a hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to unpack the multi-level explanatory factors of rural-to-urban migrants’ political trust. Findings show that the individual-level socio-economic characteristics and perceptions of government performance (Level-1), the neighborhood-level characteristics-the physical and social status and environment of neighborhoods (Level-2), and the objective macroeconomic performance of county-level government (Level-3), work together to explain migrants’ trust levels. These results suggest that considering the effects of neighborhood-level factors on rural-to-urban migrants’ political trust merits policy and public management attention in rapidly urbanizing countries.

Reproductive Health Service Utilization and Social Determinants among Married Female Rural-to-urban Migrants in Two Metropolises,China

Reproductive health（RH） education and services of female migrants in China have become an important health issue.This research aimed to investigate the RH knowledge and utilization among married female migrants,and to explore the influencing factors from the perspectives of population and sociology.We conducted a cross-section survey in Shenzhen and Wuhan,China,using the purposive sampling method.A total of 1021 rural-to-urban married migrants were recruited,with 997 valid survey results obtained.A face-to-face structured questionnaire survey was used,with primary focus on knowledge of fertility,contraception,family planning policy and sexual transmitted diseases/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome（STD/AIDs）,and RH service utilization.The results showed that the RH service utilization（38.0%） was at a low level in married migrants and the accessibility of RH service was poor.Females who migrated to（OR=0.32） Wuhan obtained fewer RH consultations than those in Shenzhen.The workers with high school education received additional RH consultations and checkup services than those with other background education,apart from the white collar workers who received extra RH consultations and checkup services than the blue collar workers（P〈0.05）.We can draw a conclusion that the utilization of RH services in married female migrants remains at a low level in China.RH service utilization can be improved via the relevant health departments by enhancing the responsibility of maternal and health care in the community health service center.

Research on the social stratificationof rural-to-urban migrants in China and paths to the granting of urban residency

Today,China has roughly 260 million rural-to-urban migrants,and most are young working-age people.The improving socioeconomic status of these migrants and structural optimization of their living conditions in urban inflow areas contribute significantly to China's economic development Using data from the China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2018,this paper conducts an exploratory factor analysis and establishes a three-dimensional stratification framework and a standardized socioeconomic index for rural-to-urban migrants.Graphically,the social stratification of migrants shows an"onion-shaped"structure with a low gravity center and two ends that taper off.Class differentiation among rural-to-urban migrants is apparent.A blue-collar group,positioned in the lower middle part of the stratification scheme,account for 70%of the population.This paper presents a horizontal comparison of the socioeconomic situations of rural-to-urban with urban-to-urban migrants and finds the latter have a more advanced social structure.Education may be the most fundamental reason for stratification differences.The social structure of rural-tourban migrants improved significantly during the years 2012 to 2018.However,the primary gains accrued to elite and professional groups while the proportion to the total size of the migrant population of the disadvantaged group at the bottom of the social structure remained nearly the same.This change in social structure suggests that some blue-collar migrants,especially skilled workers,moved upward into the professional group;however,migrants at the bottom of the structure without adequate education and lacking vocational skills hardly moved upward.Thus,this paper proposes investing more in rural education to help effectively implement policies to address this problem.

What Drives Migrants Back to Set up Firms?Return-home Entrepreneurial Intention of Rural Migrant Workers in China

The extant literature on international immigrants has discussed migrants’entrepreneurial activities in the context of Western countries but has paid little attention to return-home entrepreneurial intention(RHEI).Rural migrant workers(RMWs)in China,who used to promote rural development by remittances and were characterized by similarities with early international migrants,have gradually returned to their hometowns to initiate entrepreneurial activities.Based on the structured questionnaire conducted in 2015 and 2020in Anhui Province,China,this article combines the concept of mixed embeddedness with the idea of double-layered embeddedness and analyzes the impacts of the social,economic and institutional context in RMWs’hometowns and migration destinations on RMWs’RHEI by using binary logistic regression.The article shows that the social,economic,and institutional environments of RMWs’hometowns and migration destinations have effects on their RHEI.The embeddedness in the economic and informal institutional context in RMWs’RHEI is even more important than personal characteristics.Compared with migration destinations,RMWs’hometowns exert a more influential effect on their RHEI.However,that does not mean that the role of migration destinations can be undervalued.Actually,the better the social,economic,and institutional environments of migration destinations RMWs moved into is,the higher entrepreneurial intention they will have after returning to their hometowns.The article proposes a modified framework in combination of mixed embeddedness with double-layer embeddedness and proves that it is suitable for analyzing RMWs’RHEI.The framework has important implications for strengthening China’s RMWs to return home to start their own businesses.

Impact of Migrant Populations on Tuberculosis Rates in Saudi Arabia: Assessing How Migration Patterns Affect TB Incidence and Control Measures: A Narrative Review

This research focuses on the effects of migration on the TB infection rate and its prevention in Saudi Arabia, which has a large number of expatriates from TB-affected countries. Despite, based on the current global statistics of TB occurrence, it is evident that the national incidence of TB has reduced from 10.55 per 100,000 in 2015 to 8.36 per 100,000 in 2019;despite this, there are still some difficulties because migrants bring new strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Hindrances, including language barriers and perceived immigration status, hinder patients from seeking medical attention or doctors from diagnosing diseases. Each patient and each cultural group need special attention to public health, enhancing living circumstances, and health care support. Community participation, inclusion of TB control programs into functional healthcare facilities, and the functioning of TB programs need to be stressed to address TB issues. Considering the focus on social, economic, and cultural approaches, the country can make severe advancements in TB control and population protection. This holistic analysis is critical for a long-term effective strategy to combat TB in the Kingdom.

Maternal Mortality Rates among Im/Migrant Populations in the United States

Introduction: Maternal mortality rates have more than doubled in the U.S over the last two decades, making it one of the few places in the world where maternal mortality is increasing. Differences in maternal mortality among certain races and ethnicities are known but few studies examine maternal mortality among immigrants. Since immigrants represent 13.7% of the U.S. population, it is essential to examine immigrant subsets to understand maternal mortality among this vulnerable population. Methods: A literature search identified 318 articles on maternal mortality and immigrants, with 12 articles from the U.S. The keywords included maternal mortality, United States, migrants, asylum seekers, immigrants, and disparities. Maternal mortality statistics were obtained from the World Health Organization and Center for Disease Control. Results: Studies analyzed in this review found an overall lower maternal mortality rate among immigrant women compared to U.S.-born women, except for Hispanic immigrant women. Black women had the highest maternal mortality rate, regardless of immigration status. Conclusion: Although the literature points to lower maternal mortality among immigrants, the data is still somewhat mixed, making it challenging to draw comprehensive conclusions. Additional research examining maternal mortality among Im/migrants in the U.S. is needed to guide future training among healthcare professionals and policymakers.

Association between age at arrival,duration of migration,and overweight/obesity in Chinese rural-to-urban migrants:the Yi migrant study

Background:Urbanization in China is rapidly proceeding,but rural-to-urban migration and its association with overweight and obesity is not well studied.This study aimed to explore the age at arrival,duration of migration,and the corresponding association with overweight/obesity in Yi migrants in China.Methods:A cross-sectional study was conducted in rural and urban areas in 2015 in Sichuan province,China.Demographic characteristics,lifestyle factors,and anthropometry were collected.General linear regression models were used to assess the effect of duration of migration(1-10,11-20,21-30,and>30 years)on body mass index(BMI).Multi-variable logistic regression was used to examine the association between duration of migration and overweight/obesity(BMI≥25 kg/m^(2)).Results:A total of 3056 Yi people(1894 Yi farmers and 1162 Yi migrants)aged 20 to 80 years were enrolled.After adjusting for age,sex,and other potential confounders,Yi migrants had 1.71 kg/m^(2)(95%confidence interval[CI]:1.36-2.06)higher BMI and a 2.13-fold(95%CI:1.71-2.65)higher risk of overweight/obesity than Yi farmers.In Yi migrants,stratified by age at arrival,no significant association between duration of migration and overweight/obesity was observed in those who were 0 to 20 years old at arrival.In comparison,in migrants>20 years old at arrival,compared with the reference group(1-10 years),long-term migration(>30 years)was found to be associated with overweight/obesity after adjustment(odds ratio:1.85,95%CI:1.04-3.29).Conclusions:Yi migrants were observed to have greater risk of overweight/obesity than Yi farmers.In Yi migrants,the risk of overweight/obesity increased according to the duration of migration,especially in those who were older upon their arrival.

Economic Growth:The Fundamental Path to the Realization of Social Security Rights for Migrant Workers

The International Labour Organization seems to only see the aspect of social security promoting economic growth,while neglecting the aspect of economic growth supporting social security.From the standpoint of materialism and the practice of social security,the realization of social security rights for migrant workers fundamentally depends on economic growth.The Belt and Road Initiative has provided a Chinese solution for creating a strong material and technological foundation to meet the social security needs of all people,including migrant workers.

Sustainable Livelihood of Ecological Migrants in Qinling-Daba Mountains of Southern Shaanxi

The severe environment in Qinling-Daba Mountains has made it not suitable for the long-term residence due to the large amounts of ＂ecological migrants＂, and these migrants have moved out of the mountains and changed their economic and life styles, resulting in many problems. In this paper, the problems of ＂ecological migrants＂ were analyzed, including the education problem, different life styles, incomplete national protecting measures and policies, with the aim to provide governments with constructive suggestions for the establishment of the education and training system, acceleration of the development of industries （especially the tertiary industry, subsidiary business）, and labor transferring, increasing the incomes of ＂ecological migrants＂, and making the ＂ecological migrants＂ have the financial resources for a long time, thereby better stabilizing the ＂ecological migrants＂.

Analysis of Social Integration Models of Tourism Labor Migrants——A Case Study of Jiuhua Mountain of Anhui Province, China

The grounded theory of qualitative methods was applied to researching the social integration of tourism la-bor migrants in the Jiuhua Mountain of Anhui Province, China. The research was conducted based on the in-depth in-terviewing of 15 samples, open-consultation and the analysis of secondhand data. The integration models of tourism labor migrants in the Jiuhua Mountain were formed through four processes including theoretic sampling, cod-ing-analysis, cross-tabulation and contextualization. The result shows that modes of production and life styles decide self-integration orientation of tourism labor migrants in the Jiuhua Mountain. Cultural differences are fundamental dis-similarity between tourism labor migrants and natives. There are three kinds of integration models including rapid, free and gradually advancing integration. The differences among different types of migrants’ integration models are re-markable. Taking the working integration as the abscissa and taking the life integration as the coordinate, an "S" model of integration matrix appears in the gradually advancing integration of intermediate and high administers from the working to the life which should be paid special attention to.

Risk of overweight and obesity among migrants in Switzerland

We assessed the risk of overweight and obesity for six large migrant groups in Switzerland. We used population-based survey data form the Swiss Migrant Health Survey 2010 and the Swiss Health Survey 2007. The sample comprised permanent residents aged 17 - 64 years (n = 14,637). Multivariate logistic regressions have been used to estimate odds ratios (OR). Compared with Swiss nationals, the odds of being obese were 1.97 times higher for Turkish nationals (CI-95 1.26, 3.07), 1.73 times higher for Kosovan nationals (CI-95 1.09, 2.74) and 3.42 times higher for Serbs (CI-95 2.28, 5.12). The chance of being obese was not statistically different between Swiss nationals and those from Portugal, Italy, and Germany. The chance of being overweight or obese (BMI ≥ 25) was higher for migrants than for Swiss nationals. The respective odds were 1.54 times higher for nationals from Portugal (CI-95 1.13, 2.11), 2.05 times higher for those from Turkey (CI-95 1.50, 2.78), 2.67 times higher for those from Serbia (CI-95 1.93, 3.68), 2.68 times higher for those from Kosovo (CI-95 2.01, 3.56), and 2.16 times higher for nationals from Italy (CI-95 1.54, 3.02). We suggest that preventive initiatives should take into account the specific needs of migrants as well as the needs of persons with low education from all nationalities.

Body Mass Index and Hypertension Hemodynamic Subtypes in Yi Farmers and Migrants

Objective To examine the relationship between overweight or obesity and the risk of the various hypertension hemodynamic subtypes in Yi farmers and migrants. Methods A cross-sectional study of 2 358 Yi farmers and 2 392 Yi migrants was carried out in the Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture, Sichuan, China in 2007. Results The standardized prevalence of overweight in female Yi farmers （6.22%） was higher than in males （3.25%）, whereas in Yi migrants 32.56% of males and 28.78% of females were overweight. The standardized prevalence of obesity was 0 and 0.62% in male and female Yi farmers, compared to 3.91% and 5.57% in male and female Yi migrants, respectively. For both genders the standardized prevalence of ISH, IDH, and SDH was higher in Yi migrants than Yi farmers. Overweight and obese Yi men and women had a higher risk for IDH and SDH （P〈O.002） than non-overweight/obese individuals. However, an association of overweight or obesity with ISH was observed only in men. Conclusion Yi migrants have substantially higher proportion of overweight and obese individuals, as well as individuals affected by ISH, IDH, and SDH, than do Yi farmers. Overweight and obesity are significant risk factors for the development of hypertension in Yi people.

Regular Observation of De-Acclimatization and Randomized Controlled Research of Diagnostic Criteria of High Altitude De-Acclimatization Syndrome among Different Plateau Migrants Crowd after Their Return to the Plain

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic methods of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome and to formulate diagnostic criteria. Methods: This study was conducted using epidemiological surveys and a multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial. A total of 3011 subjects were studied, and the following indices were collected after their return to low altitude areas from the plateau: general health status, blood, urine and stool samples, myo-cardial enzyme levels, liver and kidney function, nerve function, sex hormone levels, microalbuminuria, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, pulmonary function, and hemorheological markers. These data were compared to those of randomized healthy subjects in the same age range who lived at the same altitude to determine the characteristics of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome. Based on these characteristics, diagnostic criteria for high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome were formulated. Results: This study demonstrated that the incidence of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome was 84.36%. Sixty percent of the cases were mild, 30% were medium, and 10% were severe. The incidence was higher among those who returned to a place of lower altitude, resided at a high altitude for a longer period of time, or engaged in heavy labor while at high altitude. Patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome manifested hematological abnormalities and abnormal ventricular function, notably a right ventricular diastolic function, which recovered to baseline function after one to five years. Exposure to long-term hypoxia often caused obvious changes in cardiac morphology, i.e., left and right ventricular hypertrophy, particularly within the right ventricle. In addition, patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome often presented with low blood pressure, low pulse pressure, and microalbuminuria. A few patients presented with occult blood in their feces. The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome can be made if a patient who recently returns to the plain from the plateau complains of dizziness, weakness, sleepiness, chest tightness, edema, memory loss, and other symptoms and signs that do not alleviate under short-term rehabilitation or symptomatic treatment, and if organic diseases of the heart, lung, kidney, and other organs have been excluded. Conclusion: The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome should be made after a comprehensive analysis of the patient’s clinical symptoms and signs.

Impact on Mountainous Agricultural Development in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area forced by Migrants of the Three Gorges Project

The Three Gorges Project attracts worldwide attention because of the Three Gorges migrants, and the agriculture of the Three Gorges Reservoir Area is a foundation for the development of the Three Gorges migrants. The Three Gorges Reservoir Area is situated at the mountainous area with bad agricultural development conditions and relatively low levels of development. As a result, the large-scale migration fias special influence on its agricultural development, which has attracted much attention. The paper analyzes influence that the migrants have forced on its agricultural development based on the scientific data, and makes some explorations on the models that are suitable for the development of mountainous agriculture in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area.

Rural migrants' participation in old-age insurance: a case study of the inter-provincial migrant workers from Sichuan, China

Old-age pension, a fundamental part of the Chinese social security system, is perceived by the Chinese government as the last support for rural-to-urban migrant workers upon retreating from the labor market. Using survey data collected by the authors, this paper examines a host of factors which influence migrant workers' participation in the old-age scheme. The result shows that individual characteristics, employment status, attitudes toward old-age support and perception of the old-age pension system significantly differentiate two groups of migrant workers between those that have participated in and their counterparts who have not participated in the old-age pension schemes. Among a number of factors, age, educational attainment, holding labor contract, etc. are found to be significant factors influencing migrants' behavior participating(or not participating) the available age-pension schemes. Policy implications for how to improve the rate of participation in existing old-age pension schemes among migrant workers are drawn from the findings.

An Empirical Analysis of Employment Stability and the Wage Gap of Rural Migrants in China Based on Quantile Regression

Under the background of accelerated integrated urban-rural development, this paper offers an analysis on the short-term employment of rural migrants in China and resulting wage gap between long-term and short-term rural migrants. On the basis of correcting for sample selection problems arising from labor market participation and short-term employment, rural migrants＇ wage function is estimated using quantile regression method, and wage gap between long-term and short-term rural migrants is decomposed using MM method. Our empirical results suggest that those with a higher level of education, training experience and local employment recommended by family relations or in formal labor market are more likely to secure long-term labor contract,＂ region and education have significant contributions to the wage of rural migrants,＂ rural migrants of both long- and short-term contract types have great gaps at the bottom of salary distribution; and there exists a sticky floor effect in wage difference of rural migrants. These results have important policy implications in enhancing employment stability of rural migrants, improving income distribution equity, speeding up the process of urbanization, and balancing regional development.

Limited Focus on the Use of Health Care by Elderly Migrants——A Literature Review

Our premise for this literature review is the global demographic change caused by the world’s population living longer and becoming older, and extensive international migration leading to multicultural societies. Increasing age leads to health problems, often long-term or chronic, requiring investments in health care. Worse health and dissimilarities in pattern of morbidity/ mortality have been found in foreign-compared to Swedish-born persons, so it is reasonable to assume that this affects use of health care. The exploratory review focuses on elderly migrants’ (>65 years) use of healthcare. The databases Pub Med, EBSCO, CINAHL and ERIC were searched in 2000-2013. A limited number of studies were found;few had a comparative approach, most were from the USA, and focused on migrants from the former Soviet Union or countries in South-East Asia. A range of factors were identified that influence patterns of health care use: language fluency, ability to communicate, self-reported health status, prevalence of chronic disease, physical distance from care provision, availability of transport to reach care, cost of care, the health insurance system, cultural norms and values regarding different forms of care, level of education, and length of residence in the host country. Most studies treated health care from a general perspective and collected data from community and hospital settings, without analysing usage separately. Some studies indicated elderly migrants making use of health care less than other groups but the pattern is not unambiguous: other studies show that there is an overuse of health care. It is therefore difficult to show any particular pattern, or possible differences in use, regarding community versus in-patient care. Studies focusing on migrants’ actual use of health care are few and further research is needed, especially because elderly people form the largest group of users of health care and will be even larger in the future.

Study on Perception of Potential Condom Use among Unmarried Migrants

Objective To understand the perception of potential condom use and its influencing factors so as to promote condom use among unmarried migrantsMethod A survey, using self-administered structured anonymous questionnaire, was conducted among 1 092 unmarried migrants aged 15～24 years old in urban area of Shanghai. Results The unmarried migrants had some knowledge of condom. However, their knowledge level and their attitude towards condom use were not so optimistic. Subjects' knowledge of contraceptives and STD/AIDS had a positive influence on their attitude toward condom use. Subjects with positive attitude to condom use were more likely to use condom in sexual activity (OR=1.61). Conclusion Unmarried migrants have lower rate of condom use if they have insufficient knowledge of condom. Therefore, it is essential to strengthen the sexual health education among unmarried sex-active migrants in order to encourage contraceptive use, especially condom use.

Diabetes in migrants and ethnic minorities in a changingWorld

On a worldwide scale, the total number of migrants exceeds 200 million and is not expected to reduce, fuelled by the economic crisis, terrorism and wars, generating increasing clinical and administrative problems to National Health Systems. Chronic non-communicable diseases(NCD), and specifically diabetes, are on the front-line, due to the high number of cases at risk, duration and cost of diseases, and availability of effective measures of prevention and treatment. We reviewed the documents of International Agencies on migration and performed a Pub Med search of existing literature, focusing on the differences in the prevalence of diabetes between migrants and native people, the prevalence of NCD in migrants vs rates in the countries of origin, diabetes convergence, risk of diabetes progression and standard of care in migrants. Even in universalistic healthcare systems, differences in socioeconomic status and barriers generated by the present culture of biomedicine make high-risk ethnic minorities under-treated and not protected against inequalities. Underutilization of drugs and primary care services in specific ethnic groups are far from being money-saving, and might produce higher hospitalization rates due to disease progression and complications. Efforts should be made to favor screening and treatment programs, to adapt education programs to specific cultures, and to develop community partnerships.

Diagnostic criteria of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome among plateau migrants after their return to the plain: a multi-center randomized controlled trial

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic methods of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome and to formulate diagnostic criteria.Methods: This study was conducted using epidemiological surveys and a multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial. A total of 3,011 subjects were studied, and the following indices were collected after their return to low altitude areas from the plateau: general health status, blood, urine and stool samples, myocardial enzyme levels, liver and kidney function, nerve function, sex hormone levels, microalbuminuria, electrocardiogram(ECG), echocardiography, pulmonary function, and hemorheological markers. These data were compared to those of randomized healthy subjects in the same age range who lived at the same altitude to determine the characteristics of high altitude deacclimatization syndrome. Based on these characteristics, diagnostic criteria for high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome were formulated.Results: This study demonstrated that the incidence of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome was 84.36%. Sixty percent of the cases were mild, 30% were medium, and 10% were severe. The incidence was higher among those who returned to a place of lower altitude, resided at a high altitude for a longer period of time, or engaged in heavy labor while at high altitude. Patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome manifested hematological abnormalities and abnormal ventricular function, notably a right ventricular diastolic function, which recovered to baseline function after one to five years. Exposure to long-term hypoxia often caused obvious changes in cardiac morphology, i.e., left and right ventricular hypertrophy, particularly within the right ventricle. In addition, patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome often presented with low blood pressure, low pulse pressure, and microalbuminuria. A few patients presented with occult blood in their feces. The diagnosis of high altitude deacclimatization syndrome can be made if a patient who recently returns to the plain from the plateau complains of dizziness, weakness, sleepiness, chest tightness, edema, memory loss, and other symptoms and signs that do not alleviate under short-term rehabilitation or symptomatic treatment, and if organic diseases of the heart, lung, kidney, and other organs have been excluded.Conclusion: The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome should be made after a comprehensive analysis of the patient's clinical symptoms and signs.