Monitoring absolute vertical land motions and absolute sea-level changes from GPS and tide gauges data over French Polynesia

In this study,we estimate the absolute vertical land motions at three tidal stations with collocated Global Navigation Satellite System(GNSS)receivers over French Polynesia during the period 2007-2020,and obtain,as ancillary results,estimates of the absolute changes in sea level at the same locations.To verify our processing approach to determining vertical motion,we first modeled vertical motion at the International GNSS Service(IGS)THTI station located in the capital island of Tahiti and compared our estimate with previous independent determinations,with a good agreement.We obtained the following estimates for the vertical land motions at the tide gauges:Tubuai island,Austral Archipelago-0.92±0.17 mm/yr,Vairao village,Tahiti Iti:-0.49±0.39 mm/yr,Rikitea,Gambier Archipelago-0.43±0.17 mm/yr.The absolute variations of the sea level are:Tubuai island,Austral Archipelago 5.25±0.60 mm/yr,Vairao village,Tahiti Iti:3.62±0.52 mm/yr,Rikitea,Gambier Archipelago 1.52±0.23 mm/yr.We discuss these absolute values in light of the values obtained from altimetric measurements and other means in French Polynesia.

Multi-mode Multi-frequency GNSS-IR Combination System for Sea Level Retrieval

With the development of Global Navigation Satellite Systems(GNSS),geodetic GNSS receivers have been utilized to monitor sea levels using GNSS-Interferometry Reflectometry(GNSS-IR)technology.The multi-mode,multi-frequency signals of GPS,GLONASS,Galileo,and Beidou can be used for GNSS-IR sea level retrieval,but combining these retrievals remains problematic.To address this issue,a GNSS-IR sea level retrieval combination system has been developed,which begins by analyzing error sources in GNSS-IR sea level retrieval and establishing and solving the GNSS-IR retrieval equation.This paper focuses on two key points:time window selection and equation stability.The stability of the retrieval combination equations is determined by the condition number of the coefficient matrix within the time window.The impact of ill-conditioned coefficient matrices on the retrieval results is demonstrated using an extreme case of SNR data with only ascending or descending trajectories.After determining the time window and removing ill-conditioned equations,the multi-mode,multi-frequency GNSS-IR retrieval is performed.Results from three International GNSS Service(IGS)stations show that the combination method produces high-precision,high-resolution,and high-reliability sea level retrieval combination sequences.

Evaluation of vertical crustal movements and sea level changes around Greenland from GPS and tide gauge observations

To better monitor the vertical crustal movements and sea level changes around Greenland,multiple data sources were used in this paper,including global positioning system(GPS),tide gauge,satellite gravimetry,satellite altimetry,glacial isostatic adjustment(GIA).First,the observations of more than 50 GPS stations from the international GNSS service(IGS)and Greenland network(GNET)in 2007–2018 were processed and the common mode error(CME)was eliminated with using the principal component analysis(PCA).The results show that all GPS stations show an uplift trend and the stations in southern Greenland have a higher vertical speed.Second,by deducting the influence of GIA,the impact of current Gr IS mass changes on GPS stations was analysed,and the GIA-corrected vertical velocity of the GPS is in good agreement with the vertical velocity obtained by gravity recovery and climate experiment(GRACE).Third,the absolute sea level change around Greenland at 4 gauge stations was obtained by combining relative sea level derived from tide gauge observations and crustal uplift rates derived from GPS observations,and was validated by sea level products of satellite altimetry.The results show that although the mass loss of Gr IS can cause considerable global sea level rise,eustatic movements along the coasts of Greenland are quite complex under different mechanisms of sea level changes.

Validation of Sea Level Data in the East Asian Marginal Seas: Comparison between TOPEX/POSEIDON Altimeter and In-Situ Tide Gauges

In an effort to assess the reliability of satellite altimeter systems, the authors conduct a comparative analysis of sea level data that were collected from the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) altimeter and 10 tide gauges (TG) near the satellite passing ground tracks. The analysis is made using datasets collected from marginal sea regions surrounding the Korean Peninsula at T/P cycles of 2 to 230, which correspond to October 1992 to December 1998. Proper treatment of tidal errors is a very critical step in data processing because the study area has very strong tide. When the T/P data are processed, the procedures of Park and Gamberoni (1995) are adapted to reduce errors associated with the tide. When the T/P data are processed in this way, the alias periods of M2, S2, and K1 constituents are found to be 62.1, 58.7, and 173 days repectively. The compatibility of the T/P and TG datasets are examined at various filtering periods. The results indicate that the low-frequency signals of the T/P data can be interpreted more safely with longer filtering periods (such as up to the maximum selected value of 200 days). When RMS errors for the 200-day low-pass filter period are compared with all 10 tidal stations, the values span the range of 2.8 to 6.7 cm. The results of a correlation analysis for this filtering period also show a strong agreement between the T/P and TG datasets across all stations investigated (e.g.,p- values consistently less than 0.001). Hence according to the analysis, the conclusion is made that the analysis of surface sea level using satellite altimeter data can be made safely with reasonably extended filtering periods such as 200 days.

Absolute sea level variability of Arctic Ocean in 1993–2018 from satellite altimetry and tide gauge observations

Arctic absolute sea level variations were analyzed based on multi-mission satellite altimetry data and tide gauge observations for the period of 1993–2018.The range of linear absolute sea level trends were found-2.00 mm/a to 6.88 mm/a excluding the central Arctic,positive trend rates were predominantly located in shallow water and coastal areas,and negative rates were located in high-latitude areas and Baffin Bay.Satellite-derived results show that the average secular absolute sea level trend was(2.53±0.42)mm/a in the Arctic region.Large differences were presented between satellite-derived and tide gauge results,which are mainly due to low satellite data coverage,uncertainties in tidal height processing and vertical land movement(VLM).The VLM rates at 11 global navigation satellite system stations around the Arctic Ocean were analyzed,among which 6 stations were tide gauge colocated,the results indicate that the absolute sea level trends after VLM corrected were of the same magnitude as satellite altimetry results.Accurately calculating VLM is the primary uncertainty in interpreting tide gauge measurements such that differences between tide gauge and satellite altimetry data are attributable generally to VLM.

Numerical modelling of the sea level under the actions of the tide and strong wind in the Bohai Sea

In this paper, the numerical modelling of the tidal level and current in the Bohai Sea was carried out with ADI method, by taking the sum of four main tidal components M2,S2K2,O1 as the open boundary condition. The calculated values were consistent with the predicted ones (the observed values in the case of calm) in the Tidal Table. On the basis of the modelling of the tide, the sea level and current fields under the effects of strong wind were simulated. The calculated results were also quite satisfactory.

INFLUENCE OF SEA LEVEL RISE ON SHANGHAI ASTRONOMICAL TIDE AND STORM SURGE AND ESTIMATION OF PROBABLE WATER LEVEL

A nonlinear two-dimension dynamic model of storm surge (SS) and astronomical tide(AT) was used to investigate the effects of SS and AT on expected sea level rise (SLR) at principalcoastal stations in the Shanghai region and to estimate numerically the probable maximum water lerel for2010 - 2050. Evidence suggests tha SLR causes reduction of SS; that its influence on SS depends on theintensity and path of a tropical cyclone and the station locality; tha the SLR’s effects on AT vary periodi-cally, with the peried being the same as tha of the AT’s: and that as the SLR increment grows, its impactincreases; below mean sea level (MSL) the effect is positive at rising tide and negative at ebb tide, andvice versa for the effect above MSL. Study of the probable maximum water level (by assuming SLR, SSalong favorable tropical cyclone’s path, its possible maximum intensity and effectivee spring AT at a rangeof set paths of Cyclones 5612, 8114, 9417) showed that the probable maximum water level is 740, 745,and 751 cm in the years 2010, 2030, and 2050, respetively, over the target region.

Determination of the Absolute Rate of Sea Level by Using GPS Reference Station and Tide Gauge Data

The absolute rate of mean sea level of Xiamen area is derived from the data of Xiamen tide gauge station and Xiamen GPS fiducial station of crustal movement observation network of China(CMONC). The height variation is discussed deeply in this paper. It is shown that height has periodic variations. So the rate of vertical land movement can not be precisely obtained only from several GPS campaigns. It is pointed out that the vertical crustal movement of tide gauge station should be monitored by using long-term continuous GPS observations.

Influence of Tide Models on the Use of Altimetry Data to Research Sea Level Anomaly

A tide model (named DN1.0), which contains 12 principal constituents over China seas and the Northwest Pacific is estimated by along-track harmonic analysis with TOPEX/Poseidon altimetry data taken from 1993 to 2002. CSR3.0, FES95.2 and DN1.0 are used respectively to detide the data for the time series of sea level anomaly (SLA) in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea and Northwest Pacific. The SLA curves and the power spectral density show that the major components that exist in SLA in China seas arise from the error of the tide models.

Evaluation of sea level rise and associated responses in Hangzhou Bay from 1978 to 2017

The mean sea level, extreme sea level, and astronomical tide in Hangzhou Bay were analyzed using the tide gage data from 1978 to 2017 in Tanxu station, and the effects of rising sea levels on floods were estimated. The mean sea level in Hangzhou Bay showed a significant rising trend of 4.6mm per year in 1978-2017. This rate was much higher than the mean sea level of the China seas, and the extreme sea level in Hangzhou Bay increased at the rate of 0.011 m per year. During 1978-2017, the mean tide range increased at the rate of 1.30 cm per year. The amplitude of M2 significantly increased at the rate of 0.57cm per year, whereas the phase lag decreased at the rate of --0.21° per year. The amplitude and phase lag of the K1 tidal component slightly decreased at the rate of --0.03 cm per year and -0.07° per year, respectively. The changes in extreme sea level in Hangzhou Bay were mainly caused by variations in mean sea level. The coastal areas of Hangzhou Bay at risk from flooding due to the 100-year sea level return will increase by about 400 km^2 by 2050.

Sea level rise along China coast in the last 60 years

Based on long-term tide gauge observations in the last 60 years,the temporal and spatial variation characteristics of sea level change along the coast of China are analyzed.The results indicate that the sea level along the coast of China has been rising at an increasing rate,with an estimated acceleration of 0.07 mm/a2.The rise rates were 2.4 mm/a,3.4 mm/a and 3.9 mm/a during 1960–2020,1980–2020 and 1993–2020,respectively.In the last 40 years,the coastal sea level has risen fastest in the South China Sea and slowest in the Yellow Sea.Seasonal sea levels all show an upward trend but rise faster in winter and spring and slower in autumn.Sea level change along the coast of China has significant periodic oscillations of quasi-2 a,4 a,7 a,11 a,quasi-19 a and 30–50 a,among which the 2–3 a,11 a,and 30–50 a signals are most remarkable,and the amplitude is approximately 1–2 cm.The coastal sea level in the most recent decade reached its highest value in the last 60 years.The decadal sea level from 2010 to 2019 was approximately 133 mm higher than the average of 1960–1969.Empirical orthogonal function analysis indicates that China’s coastal sea level has been changing in a north-south anti-phase pattern,with Pingtan and Fujian as the demarcation areas.This difference was especially obvious during 1980–1983,1995–1997 and 2011–2013.The coastal sea level was the highest in 2016,and this extreme sea level event was analyzed to be related mainly to the anomalous wind field and ENSO.

Evaluation of sea level rise in Bohai Bay and associated responses

Tide gauge data from 1950 to 2015 are used to analyze sea level change, tidal change, return levels, and design tide levels under rising sea level scenarios in Bohai Bay. Results show the following: 1) Since 1950 sea levels in Bohai Bay show a significant rising trend of 3.3 mm per year. The speed has been particularly rapid in 1980e2015 at a rate of 4.7 mm per year. 2) Astronomical tides showed a clear long-term trend in 1950e2015. The amplitude and phase lag of the M2 tide constituent decreased at a rate of 0.21 cm per year and 0.11
per year, respectively and the phase lag of K1 decreased at a rate of 0.09
per year, whereas there was little change in its amplitude. The mean high and low tides increased at a rate of 0.08 and 0.52 cm per year, respectively, whereas the mean tidal range decreased at a rate of 0.44 cm per year. Results from numerical experiments show that local sea level rise plays an important role in the tidal dynamics change in Bohai Bay. 3) It is considered that the sea level return periods will decrease owing to the influence of sea level rise and land subsidence, therefore design tide level will change in relation

Combination of Tsoft and ET34-ANA-V80 software for the preprocessing and analysis of tide gauge data in French Polynesia

Since 2008 a network of five sea-level monitoring stations was progressively installed in French Polynesia.The stations are autonomous and data,collected at a sampling rate of 1 or 2 min,are not only recorded locally,but also transferred in real time by a radio-link to the NOAA through the GOES satellite.The new ET34-ANA-V80 version of ETERNA,initially developed for Earth Tides analysis,is now able to analyze ocean tides records.Through a two-step validation scheme,we took advantage of the flexibility of this new version,operated in conjunction with the preprocessing facilities of the Tsoft software,to recover co rrected data series able to model sea-level variations after elimination of the ocean tides signal.We performed the tidal analysis of the tide gauge data with the highest possible selectivity(optimal wave grouping)and a maximum of additional terms(shallow water constituents).Our goal was to provide corrected data series and modelled ocean tides signal to compute tide-free sea-level variations as well as tidal prediction models with centimeter precision.We also present in this study the characteristics of the ocean tides in French Polynesia and preliminary results concerning the non-tidal variations of the sea level concerning the tide gauge setting.

Spatial and Temporal Features of Regional Variations in Mean Sea Level around Taiwan

Satellite altimeter and in-situ tide gauge records are probably the most common means to obtain observational data for the study of changes in mean sea level. In this study, we employed these data to discuss the spatial and temporal features of regional variations in mean sea level around Taiwan. The results showed that most of the regional mean sea surface heights (SSH) around Taiwan are higher than the global mean sea surface heights. Most of the sea level trends are greater than the global mean sea level trend as well. We obtained diverse distribution results from the altimeter sea level records in neighboring areas by distributions fit, and the altimeter sea level records showed obvious inhomogene- ity. In addition, periodic fluctuations in the records regarding mean sea level were revealed in our study, based on Fourier spectra and wavelet scalograms.

Sea level rise along China coast from 1950 to 2020

Global mean sea level rise has been reconstructed using tide gauges. However, long-term sea level rise along the China coast is unclear. To address this issue, a data assimilation approach is developed to reconstruct sea level rise along the China coast from 1950 to 2020 using a global distribution of tide gauges(TGs). This approach combines climate models and sea level fingerprints. The climate models provide stereodynamic sea level changes. The sea level fingerprints include increases in ocean mass due to global ice melting and changes in water storage on land. The reconstructed global mean sea level rise agrees well with previous studies. We quantify sea level rise at 20 TGs along the China coast. The results suggest that sea level rise along the China coast(1.95±0.33 mm yr^(-1)) is greater than the global mean(1.71±0.17 mm yr^(-1)). We also find that China's coastal sea level rise is more than three times faster after 1980, increasing from 0.84±0.28 mm yr^(-1)for 1950–1980 to3.12±0.21 mm yr^(-1)for 1980–2020. This finding implies a significant sea level acceleration along the China coast. Our results advance the understanding of long-term sea level changes along the China coast.

Observation on Height Changes of Chinese Tide Gauges by GPS

The height changes of tide gauges directly influence sea level observation. For research of sea level variation in large region or globe, the land vertical displacement must be considered. Two sessions of GPS and absolute gravity observations in 2001 and 2003 are used to determine the horizontal and vertical motion of China coast in ITRF2000 and Eurasia frame. The difference between results of continuous observation and periodic observation is discussed.

近岸海域地形复杂性对潮汐特征的影响研究——以南黄海及东海北侧海域为例

南黄海及东海北侧海域近岸地形复杂,受地形影响其潮位预报精度低,研究近岸地形复杂度对潮汐特征的影响对提高预报精度很有必要。基于系列长期验潮站实测潮位和近岸地形等基础数据,采用调和分析及相关性分析等方法分析了近岸潮汐特征对地形复杂度的响应。研究发现,验潮站周围地形越复杂,K1分潮振幅越小、M2、M4分潮振幅越大;随着地形复杂程度的提高,海域的潮汐变形越显著,潮时不等现象越显著,表明南黄海海域的地形复杂程度是其潮汐变形和潮时不等现象的主要因素;验潮站附近海域地形越复杂,其调和分析的精度越差,其绝对余水位越大,说明地形也是影响验潮站潮位精度和余水位的主要因素。探讨了基于地形复杂度修正的调和分析方法,并经验证各验潮站调和精度均有不同程度的提高。

利用GNSS反射信号监测海面高度变化——基于法国BRST站2019~2021年数据

GNSS反射测量(GNSS-R)技术凭借其数据来源广泛、低成本、高时空分辨率等优势,在地表与海洋环境监测等方面展现巨大潜力,已成为海面高度(SSH)反演的重要技术途径。现有研究大多聚焦于3~6个月内的短期GPS潮位反演,难以反映海面高度的季节性变化及年际特征,且在动态海面改正时仅考虑了垂向速度的影响,忽视了海面波动的垂向加速度,导致低潮位与高潮位的反演精度较差。基于此,以法国某一岸基跟踪站——BRST站为例,利用其连续3年的BDS/GPS/GLONASS/Galileo四系统反射信号,通过Lomb-Scargle谱分析和二阶动态潮位改正模型,采取稳健回归策略反演海面高度,并将最终结果与验潮站观测值进行对比,分析潮位变化趋势。结果表明:GNSS-R技术反演结果与验潮站观测值具有较好的一致性,反演精度有逐年提升的趋势,均方根误差(RMSE)为7.57 cm,相关系数为0.935;海面高度的季节性变化特征明显,秋、冬季平均海面高度偏高,夏季平均海面高度偏低,且海面高度的季节性变化与温度的季节性变化存在着相反的趋势;M2、S2、K1、O1、N2、K2、P1、Q1、M4等9个分潮的振幅差为0.06~6.76 cm,其平均绝对误差(MAE)为1.60 cm,迟角差为0.03°~6.96°,其平均绝对误差为2.45°,在频域上进一步验证了GNSS-R技术监测海面高度变化的可靠性。

长江三峡建坝前后流量和海平面对感潮河段潮位的影响差异

三峡大坝运行和海平面上升对河口水文动力变化的影响广受国内外关注。本文选取长江感潮河段沿程6个站(芜湖、马鞍山、南京、镇江、江阴和天生港) 1963-1985年(其中1970年和1971年数据缺失)和2003-2013年(其中2008年和2012年数据缺失)共30个年份的1月和7月的月均高潮位资料,以及相应月份上游大通站的流量(1950-2013年)、长江河口吴淞站潮位资料,通过肯德尔趋势分析、回归分析和偏相关分析等方法研究长江感潮河段潮位变化规律和影响因素。结果表明,三峡建坝后:(1)枯季流量和海平面的增加,导致上下段(以江阴为界)的潮位分别上升了0.33 m和0.20 m;洪季流量减少和海平面增加,导致上段潮位减小0.19 m、下段潮位增加0.04 m。(2)感潮河段洪季海平面与潮位回归方程的斜率均增加,表现为建坝后洪季洪涝灾害增加。(3)上下段流量和海平面对潮位贡献率的显著变化是导致上下段潮位呈现不同演变趋势的主要原因。

基于BDS卫星信噪比反演海平面高度研究

为提高BDS卫星信噪比(SNR)信号海平面高度反演结果的精度,选取MAYG站2019年203—209年积日BDS卫星B2/B6/B7波段数据,以该站附近的验潮仪数据为真值,采用小波变换方法对BDS卫星各波段SNR信号进行滤波,利用LSP频谱分析法反演海平面高度,并与经典滤波方法的反演结果进行对比,探讨小波变换方法反演BDS卫星海平面高度的适用性。结果表明:①BDS各波段均可用于海平面高度反演;②小波变换方法反演结果精度优于经典多项式滤波方法,二者时间分辨率相当,结果精度均为亚米级;③BDS三波段可联合对海平面高度进行反演,且反演结果的时间分辨率将得到极大提升。