Pavement structure and materials design for sea-crossing bridges and tunnel:Case study of the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge

With the continuous development of bridge and tunnel construction technologies,large-scale sea-crossing bridges and tunnels have gradually become the preferred choice for regional traffic.The construction technology of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge(HZMB),one of the most representative sea-crossing passageways,is instructive for the construction of other large sea-crossing infrastructures.At present,the pavement design method of sea-crossing passageways lacks pertinence as it still refers to specifications for design of common pavement.Therefore,it is necessary to consider the bridge and tunnel pavement of HZMB as a typical example to analyze key technical problems encountered in its design,construction and operation.Novel solutions for material selection and structural design built upon the analysis of such critical problems should thus follow up.Based on comprehensive literature research,it can be found that environmental variability,tunnel closure,structural differential settlement and expansion deformation are the key technical problems faced by pavement of sea-crossing passageways.In view of the environmental variability,the steel deck-paving material and structure design of GMA-10 t SMA-13 is innovatively proposed.As for the closure of immersed tube tunnel,warm-mix flame retardant asphalt mixture is used to control pavement design through key indexes such as temperature and limit oxygen index.Regarding the deformation of immersed pipe joints,BJ200 asphalt seamless expansion joint material is introduced,which effectively satisfies the multi-directional deformation between pipe joints and ensures the smoothness of the road surface and driving comfort.For segmental joints,double-layer waterproof-coiled material is used to effectively prevent reflective cracks while ensuring the continuity of asphalt concrete pavement.Therefore,this paper provides a panel of ideas and methods for the pavement design of the same type of sea-crossing passageways.

Design of foundation structures of sea-crossing bridges on serviceability limit state

The target reliability indices of the foundation structures of sea-crossing bridges on the serviceability limit state （SLS） are different from those of common bridges due to their different surroundings. Consequently, three levels of the target reliability indices, which are 1.5, 2. 0 and 2. 3, respectively, for those structures on the SLS are suggested based on the Joint Committee on Structural Safety （JCSS） model code, and a new method of calibrating factors of live loads, which is based on the contribution ratio of tensile stresses of reinforcing bars produced by various loads to the maximum crack width of concrete, is proposed. Finally, the calibration of the reliability-based factors of the frequent value and the quasi-permanent value of live loads is conducted by the Joint Committee （JC） method through an actual design, and the indices are proved to be reasonable and the new method is proved to be feasible.

Application Strategies of Shotcrete Anchor Support Technology in Highway Bridge and Tunnel Engineering

This article analyzes the application strategies of shotcrete anchor support technology using a highway bridge-tunnel construction project as an example.The article covers various strategies,including support plan formulation,mortar shotcrete anchor construction,grid steel frame construction,steel mesh construction,and concrete support construction.This analysis aims to provide a guideline for those interested in applying this technology and improving the quality and safety of highway bridges and tunnels construction.

Construction Technology of Pile Foundation for Subway Tunnel Crossing Bridge

Urban infrastructure has become more complex with the rapid development of urban transportation networks.In urban environments with limited space,construction of facilities like subways and bridges may mutually influence each other,especially when subway construction requires passing under bridges.In such cases,pile foundation replacement technology is often necessary.However,this technology is highly specialized,with a lengthy and risky construction period,and high costs.Personnel must be proficient in key technical aspects to ensure construction quality.This article discusses the technical principle,construction process,and core technology of pile foundation replacement,along with the application of this technology in subway tunnel crossing bridge projects,supported by engineering examples for reference.

Discussion on Construction Technology of Subway Tunnel Expansion under Bridge Foundation

As the urban populations grow,the number and size of subway construction projects are increasing while also meeting higher construction standards.So,subway construction projects must have a better understanding of construction technology.This article focuses on the construction technology of the subway tunnel expansion under the bridge foundation.By analyzing the engineering characteristics of the bridge foundation and using a project as an example,this article provides a detailed discussion of the construction process of tunnel expansion under a bridge foundation.This article aims to serve as a reference for subway tunnel construction in China to ensure the key points of construction technology are understood,thus improving construction quality and laying a solid technical foundation for the sustainable development of urban rail engineering.

Reliability Analysis of Numerical Simulation of Sea-Crossing Bridge Deformation Under Wave Forces

To study on the numerical simulation calculation reliability of sea-crossing bridge under complex wave forces,the paper applied GPS deformation monitoring and numerical simulation calculation by researching Qingdao Jiaozhou Bay Sea-Crossing Bridge.The db3 wavelet three-layer decomposition was used on the horizontal movement of the sea-crossing bridge and the wind speed of the waves to analyze their correlation.The complex wave forces value of Qingdao Jiaozhou Bay Sea-Crossing Bridge was loaded on FLAC3D software successfully to make numerical simulation calculation of bridge deformation.Since the accuracy of the GPS deformation monitoring reaches millimeter level,it was used to monitor the exact value of the bridge deformation to judge the reliability of numerical simulation.The relative errors of displacement in X,Y and Z directions were between 33%and 41%through comparison.It could be seen that the numerical simulation error was relatively large,which was mainly due to various environmental factors and the deviation of applied wave forces.However,numerical simulation generally reflects the deformation law of the sea-crossing bridge under complex wave forces,providing an effectively technical support for the safe operation assessment of the sea-crossing bridge.

Scour effect on a sea-crossing bridge under combined action of service and extreme seismic loads

Foundation scour is an important cause for structural failure of sea-crossing bridges. Usually, the sea-crossing bridges operate under the harsh natural environment in which service wind, wave and vehicle loads are stronger and extreme loads such as earthquake, hurricane, and ship collision, are more frequent. As a result of the foundation scour,the dynamic behavior of bridge under different combined action of service and extreme loads may be further escalated.In particular, this work has investigated the scour effect on a sea-crossing bridge under service wind, wave and vehicle loads as well as extreme seismic loads. The dynamic coupled earthquake-wind-wave-vehicle-bridge(EWWVB) system is established by considering the interactions within the system, and the p-y curve method is used to calculate the loaddisplacement relation of the pile and soil under various levels of foundation scour. After that, a case study has been performed on a cable-stayed bridge with foundation scour. The results indicate that the dynamic characteristics of bridge structure will change after considering bridge scour, and the dynamic responses of bridge and vehicle will be affected to different degrees under service and seismic loads considering bridge scour.

Influence of water-rich tunnel by shield tunneling on existing bridge pile foundation in layered soils

At present,shield tunneling often needs to pass through a large number of bridge pile foundations.However,there are few studies on the influence of shield tunneling on adjacent pile foundations by combining with groundwater seepage.Based on Winkler model,the calculation equations of shield tunneling on vertical and horizontal displacement of adjacent bridge pile are derived.Meanwhile,full and part three-dimensional finite element models are established to analyze the trend of bridge pier settlement,ground surface settlement trough,vertical and horizontal displacement of the pile and pile stress under three calculation conditions,i.e.,not considering groundwater effect,considering stable groundwater effect and fluid-soil interaction.The results show that the calculated value is small when the effect of groundwater is not considered;the seepage velocity of the soil above the excavation face is faster than that of the surrounding soil under fluid-soil interaction,and after the shield passing,the groundwater on both sides shows a flow trend of“U”shape on the ground surface supplying to the upper part of the tunnel;the vertical displacement of the pile body is bounded by the horizontal position of the top of the tunnel,the upper pile body settles,and the lower pile body deforms upward.The horizontal displacement of pile body presents a continuous“S”shape distribution,causing stress concentration near the tunnel.The calculated results of fluid-soil interaction are in good agreement with the field measured data and accord with the actual situation.

Experimental Investigation of Wave-Current Loads on a Bridge Shuttle-Shaped Cap–Pile Foundation

To scrutinize the characteristics of wave-current loads on a bridge shuttle-shaped cap–pile foundation,a 1:125 test model was considered in a laboratory flume.The inline,transverse and vertical wave–current forces acting on the shuttle-shaped cap-pile group model were measured considering both random waves and a combination of random waves with a current.The experimental results have shown that the wave-current forces can be well correlated with the wave height,the wavelength,the current velocity,the incident direction and the water level in the marine environment.An increase in the current velocity can lead to a sharp increase in the inline and transverse wave-current forces,while the vertical wave-current force decreases.Moreover,the wave-current forces are particularly strong when a combination of high tide,strong wave and strong current is considered.

Wind tunnel measurement of aerodynamic characteristics of trains passing each other on a simply supported box girder bridge

The aerodynamic performance of high-speed trains passing each other was investigated on a simply supported box girder bridge,with a span of 32 m,under crosswinds.The bridge and train models,modeled at a geometric scale ratio of 1:30,were used to test the aerodynamic forces of the train,with the help of a designed moving test rig in the XNJD-3 wind tunnel.The effects of wind speed,train speed,and yaw angle on the aerodynamic coefficients of the train were analyzed.The static and moving model tests were compared to demonstrate how the movement of the train influences its aerodynamic characteristics.The results show that the sheltering effect introduced by trains passing each other can cause a sudden change in force on the leeward train,which is further influenced by the wind and running speeds.Detailed analyses related to the effect of wind and train speeds on the aerodynamic coefficients were conducted.The relationship between the change in aerodynamic coefficients and yaw angle was finally described by a series of proposed fitting formulas.

Particle Swarm-Based Translation Control for Immersed Tunnel Element in the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge Project

Immersed tunnel is an important part of the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge(HZMB) project. In immersed tunnel floating, translation which includes straight and transverse movements is the main working mode. To decide the magnitude and direction of the towing force for each tug, a particle swarm-based translation control method is presented for non-power immersed tunnel element. A sort of linear weighted logarithmic function is exploited to avoid weak subgoals. In simulation, the particle swarm-based control method is evaluated and compared with traditional empirical method in the case of the HZMB project. Simulation results show that the presented method delivers performance improvement in terms of the enhanced surplus towing force.

Safety of the express freight train running over a long-span bridge

Purpose-Express freight transportation is in rapid development currently.Owing to the higher speed of express freight train,the deformation of the bridge deck worsens the railway line condition under the action of wind and train moving load when the train runs over a long-span bridge.Besides,the blunt car body of vehicle has poor aerodynamic characteristics,bringing a greater challenge on the running stability in the crosswind.Design/methodology/approach-In this study,the aerodynamic force coefficients of express freight vehicles on the bridge are measured by scale model wind tunnel test.The dynamic model of the train-long-span steel truss bridge coupling system is established,and the dynamic response as well as the running safety of vehicle are evaluated.Findings-The results show that wind speed has a significant influence on running safety,which is mainly reflected in the over-limitation of wheel unloading rate.The wind speed limit decreases with train speed,and it reduces to 18.83 m/s when the train speed is 160 km/h.Originality/value-This study deepens the theoretical understanding of the interaction between vehicles and bridges and proposes new methods for analyzing similar engineering problems.It also provides a new theoretical basis for the safety assessment of express freight trains.

Wind tunnel tests on aerodynamic characteristics of vehicles on same-storey highway and rail bridge under crosswind

In recent years,the safety and comfort of road vehicles driving on bridges under crosswinds have attracted more attention due to frequent occurrences of wind-induced disasters.This study focuses on a container truck and CRH2 high-speed train as research targets.Wind tunnel experiments are performed to investigate shielding effects of trains on aerodynamic characteristics of trucks.The results show that aerodynamic interference between trains and trucks varies with positions of trains(upstream,downstream)and trucks(upwind,downwind)and numbers of trains.To summarize,whether the train is upstream or downstream of tracks has basically no effect on aerodynamic forces,other than moments,of a truck driving on windward sides of bridges(upwind).In contrast,the presence of trains on the bridge deck has a significant impact on aerodynamic characteristics of a truck driving on leeward sides(downwind)at the same time.The best shielding effect on lateral forces of trucks occurs when the train is located downstream of tracks.Finally,the pressure measuring system shows that only lift forces on trains are affected by trucks,while other forces and moments are primarily affected by adjacent trains.

Wind tunnel study of aerodynamic wind loading on middle pylon of Taizhou Bridge

Segment sectional model tests are carried out to investigate the wind loading on middle pylon of Taizhou Bridge, which has complicated three-dimensional flow due to its feature of double columns. Through the force measuring tests, aerodynamic force coefficients of every segment of the pylon columns have been obtained. It is found that the tested aerodynamic force coefficients are much smaller than those given by codes. The interference effects of aerodynamic force coefficients between columns of pylon are discussed. The results show that the interference effect is the most evident when the yaw angle is about 30 ° from transverse direction. This kind of interference effect can be described as diminutions in transverse aerodynamic force coefficients and magnifications in longitudinal aerodynamic force coefficients of downstream columns.

Wind Tunnel Test on the Wind-Resistant Behavior of a Long-Span Cable-Stayed Bridge during Erection

In order to investigate the aerodynamic behavior of the Sutong bridge over Yangtze River during erection, a 1：50 sectional model of the bridge deck, a 1： 100 full aeroelastic model of the free standing pylon and a 1： 125 full aeroelastic model for the maxim cantilever configuration were built. The test results show that there was no serious vortex-induced vibration at the bridge deck, and that the free standing tower, the model scale and the turbulence intensity influenced static loading. The buffeting responses during the maximum cantilever configuration did not affect the safety of the bridge under construction.

Countermeasures for the Maintenance Management of Expressway Bridges and Tunnels

In order to improve the maintenance of expressway bridges and tunnels as well as to maximize the utilization rate of expressway bridges and tunnels,this paper studies the countermeasures for the maintenance management of expressway bridges and tunnels.Through theoretical analysis,this paper expounds the problems existing in the maintenance management of expressway bridges and tunnels as well as proposes corresponding solutions to these problems.By implementing the countermeasures for the maintenance management of expressway bridges and tunnels,it is possible improve the maintenance effect of expressway bridges and tunnels as well as ensure the smooth and safe operation of expressway bridges and tunnels.

Analysis on Bearing Capacity of Tunnel-Type Anchorage of a Long-Span Suspension Bridge

Due to complicated rock structure and environment, a prototype test for a tunnel-type anchorage is infeasible. Based on the rock mass parameters from tests, a three-dimensional （3D） elastoplastic analysis was performed to simulate the influence of the construction procedure of Siduhe bridge with tunnel-type anchorage （TTA） in Hubei Province, China. The surrounding rock and concrete anchorage body were simulated by 8 nodes 3D brick elements. The geostatic state of the complex geometric structure was established with initial data. The in-situ concrete casting of the anchorage body and excavation of the rock mass were simulated by tetrahedral shell elements. The results show that the surrounding rock is in an elastic state under the designed cable force. The numerical overloading analysis indicates that the capacity of the surrounding anchorage is 7 times that of the designed cable force. The failure pattern shows that two anchorage bodies would be pulled out in the end. The maximum shear stress appears 10 m before the back anchorage face. The maximum range influenced by the TTA under ultimate loads is about 16 m.

The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge

The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge (HZMB) is located at the Pearl River Estuary on the southeast coast of China;it is the longest as-build marine crossings made of island, tunnel, and bridge. It links Hong Kong in the east with Zhuhai–Macao in the west with a total length of 55 km. The link was built according to the highway standard of six lanes with three lanes going each way;it has a design speed of 100 km·h^-1 and a design life of 120 years. The HZMB has improved traffic conditions on the east and west sides of the coast of the Pearl River Estuary and strengthened the communication, transportation, and economic integration of the three regions, thus accelerating the formation of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area. This paper introduces the design and construction of the HZMB, with a focus on the new technologies involved in building the artificial islands and immersed tunnel.

Aerodynamic characteristics of a high-speed train crossing the wake of a bridge tower from moving model experiments

In a strong crosswind,the wake of a bridge tower will lead to an abrupt change of the aerodynamic forces acting on a vehicle passing through it,which may result in problems related to the transportation safety.This study investigates the transient aerodynamic characteristics of a high-speed train moving in a truss girder bridge and passing by a bridge tower in a wind tunnel.The scaled ratio of the train,bridge,and tower are 1:30.Effects of various parameters such as the incoming wind speed,train speed,and yaw angle on the aerodynamic performance of the train were considered.Then the sudden change mechanism of aerodynamic loads on the train when it crosses over the tower was further discussed.The results show that the bridge tower has an apparent shielding effect on the train passing through it,with the influencing width being larger than the width of the tower.The train speed is the main factor affecting the influencing width of aerodynamic coefficients,and the mutation amplitude is mainly related to the yaw angle obtained by changing the incoming wind speed or train speed.The vehicle movement introduces an asymmetry of loading on the train in the process of approaching and leaving the wake of the bridge tower,which should not be neglected.

Cross-spectral recognition method of bridge deck aerodynamic admittance function

This study proposes a new identification algorithm about the admittance function, which can estimate the full set of six aerodynamic admittance functions considering cross power spectral density functions about the forces and the turbulence components. The method was first numerically validated through Monte Carlo simulations, and then adopted to estimate the aerodynamic admittance of a streamlined bridge deck. The identification method was further validated through a comparison between the numerical calculation and wind tunnel tests on a moving bridge section. © 2015, Institute of Engineering Mechanics, China Earthquake Administration and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.