Interplay of laser power and pore characteristics in selective laser melting of ZK60 magnesium alloys:A study based on in-situ monitoring and image analysis

This study offers significant insights into the multi-physics phenomena of the SLM process and the subsequent porosity characteristics of ZK60 Magnesium(Mg)alloys.High-speed in-situ monitoring was employed to visualise process signals in real-time,elucidating the dynamics of melt pools and vapour plumes under varying laser power conditions specifically between 40 W and 60 W.Detailed morphological analysis was performed using Scanning-Electron Microscopy(SEM),demonstrating a critical correlation between laser power and pore formation.Lower laser power led to increased pore coverage,whereas a denser structure was observed at higher laser power.This laser power influence on porosity was further confirmed via Optical Microscopy(OM)conducted on both top and cross-sectional surfaces of the samples.An increase in laser power resulted in a decrease in pore coverage and pore size,potentially leading to a denser printed part of Mg alloy.X-ray Computed Tomography(XCT)augmented these findings by providing a 3D volumetric representation of the sample internal structure,revealing an inverse relationship between laser power and overall pore volume.Lower laser power appeared to favour the formation of interconnected pores,while a reduction in interconnected pores and an increase in isolated pores were observed at higher power.The interplay between melt pool size,vapour plume effects,and laser power was found to significantly influence the resulting porosity,indicating a need for effective management of these factors to optimise the SLM process of Mg alloys.

Selective Laser Melting of Novel SiC and TiC Strengthen 7075 Aluminum Powders for Anti-Cracks Application

The aerospace and military sectors have widely used AA7075, a type of 7075 aluminum alloy, due to its exceptional mechanical performance. Selective laser melting (SLM) is a highly effective method for producing intricate metallic components, particularly in the case of aluminum alloys like Al-Si-Mg. Nevertheless, the production of high-strength AA7075 by SLM is challenging because of its susceptibility to heat cracking and elemental vaporization. In this study, AA7075 powders were mechanically mixed with SiC and TiC particles. Subsequently, this new type of AA7075 powder was effectively utilized in green laser printing to create solid components with fine-grain strengthening microstructures consisting of equiaxial grains. These as-printed parts exhibit a tensile strength of up to 350 MPa and a ductility exceeding 2.1%. Hardness also increases with the increasing content of mixed powder, highlighting the essential role of SiC and TiC in SLM for improved hardness and tensile strength performance. .

In uence of Particle Size on Laser Absorption and Scanning Track Formation Mechanisms of Pure Tungsten Powder During Selective Laser Melting

A three-dimensional laser absorption model based on ray tracing was established to describe the coupled interaction of a laser beam with particles in the powder layers of pure tungsten(W)material processed by selective laser melting(SLM).The influence of particle size on the powder-to-laser absorptivity and underlying absorption behavior was investigated.An intrinsic relationship between the absorption,distribution of absorbed irradiance within the powder layers,and surface morphology and geometric characteristics(e.g.,contact angle,width and height of tracks,and remelted depth)of the laser scanning tracks is presented here.Simulation conclusions indicate that the absorptivity of the powder layers considerably exceeds the single powder particle value or the dense solid material value.With an increase in particle size,the powder layer absorbs less laser energy.The maximum absorptivity of theWpowder layers reached 0.6030 at the particle size of 5 lm.The distribution of laser irradiance on the particle surface was sensitive to particle size,azimuthal angle,and the position of the powder particles on the substrate.The maximum irradiance in the powder layers decreased from 1.117×10^–3 to 0.85×10^–3W·μm^-2 and the contour of the irradiance distribution in the center of the irradiated area gradually contracted when the particle size increased from 5 to 45 lm.An experimental study on the surface morphologies and cross-sectional geometric characteristics of SLM-fabricated W material was performed,and the experimental results validated the mechanisms of the powder-to-laser-absorption behavior that were obtained in simulations.This work provides a scientific basis for the application of the ray-tracing model to predict the wetting and spreading ability of melted tracks during SLM additive manufacturing in order to yield a sound laser processability.

Design and Manufacture of Bionic Porous Titanium Alloy Spinal Implant Based on Selective Laser Melting(SLM)

In order to meet the clinical requirements of spine surgery,this paper proposed the exploratory research of computer-aided design and selective laser melting(SLM)fabrication of a bionic porous titanium spine implant.The structural design of the spinal implant is based on CT scanning data to ensure correct matching,and the mechanical properties of the implant are verified by simulation analysis and laser selective melting experiment.The surface roughness of the spinal implant manufactured by SLM without post-processing is Ra 15μm,and the implant is precisely jointed with the photosensitive resin model of the upper and lower spine.The surface micro-hardness of the implant is HV 373,tensile strengthσ_(b)=1238.7 MPa,yield strengthσ_(0.2)=1043.9 MPa,the elongation is 6.43%,and the compressive strength of porous structure under 84.60%porosity is 184.09 MPa,which can meet the requirements of the reconstruction of stable spines.Compared with the traditional implant and intervertebral fusion cage,the bionic porous spinal implant has the advantages of accurate fit,porous bionic structure and recovery of patients,and the ion release experiment proved that implants manufactured by SLM are more suitable for clinical application after certain treatments.The elastic modulus of the sample is improved after heat treatment,mainly because the microstructure of the sample changes fromα’phase toα+βdual-phase after heat treatment.In addition,the design of high-quality bionic porous spinal implants still needs to be optimized for the actual needs of doctors.

Effects of selective laser melting process parameters on powder formability of Ti6Al4V

Taking Ti6Al4V titanium alloy powder as the research object,on the basis of single layer scanning and single channel scanning experiment,this paper studies the influence of selective laser melting(SLM)process parameters on Ti6Al4V alloy material formability,and block forming experiment is carried out.Through the design of orthogonal experiment,morphology observation of sample and density analysis,results show that the best block molding parameters of SLM technology in Ti6Al4V alloy powder are laser power of 400 W,lap rate of 1 and the scanning speed of 750 mm/min,density can up to 96.17%.

Topology optimization of microstructure and selective laser meltingfabrication for metallic biomaterial scaffolds

The precise design and fabrication of biomaterial scaffolds is necessary to provide a systematic study for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterial scaffolds should have sufficient stiffness and large porosity. These two goals generally contradict since larger porosity results in lower mechanical properties. To seek the microstructure of maximum stiffness with the constraint of volume fraction by topology optimization method, algorithms and programs were built to obtain 2D and 3D optimized microstructure and then they were transferred to CAD models of STL format. Ti scaffolds with 30% volume fraction were fabricated using a selective laser melting （SLM） technology. The architecture and pore shape in the metallic biomaterial scaffolds were relatively precise reproduced and the minimum mean pore size was 231μm. The accurate fabrication of intricate microstructure has verified that the SLM process is suitable for fabrication of metallic biomaterial scaffolds.

Metal-ceramic Bond Mechanism of the Co-Cr Alloy Denture with Original Rough Surface Produced by Selective Laser Melting

The porcelain fracture caused by low metal-ceramic bond strength is a critical issue in porcelain fused to metal（PFM） restorations. Surface roughening methods, such as sand blasting, acid etching and alkaline degreasing for the metal matrix are used to increase bond strength. However, the metal matrix of PFM processed by selective laser melting（SLM） has natural rough surface. To explore the effect of the original roughness on metal-ceramic bond strength, two groups of specimen are fabricated by SLM. One group of specimen surface is polished smooth while another group remains the original rough surface. The dental porcelain is fused to the specimens＇ surfaces according to the ISO 9693：1999 standard. To gain the bond strength, a three-point bending test is carried out and X ray energy spectrum analysis（EDS）, scanning electron microscope（SEM） are used to show fracture mode. The results show that the mean bond strength is 116.5 16 MPa of the group with rough surface（Ra= 17.2）, and the fracture mode is cohesive. However, when the surface is smooth （Ra =3.8）, the mean bond strength is 74.5 MPa _＋ 5 MPa and the fracture mode is mixed. The original surface with prominent structures formed by the partly melted powder particles, not only increases surface roughness but also significantly improves the bond strength by forming strong mechanical lock effect. Statistical analysis （Student＇s t-test） demonstrates a significant difference （p〈0.05） of the mean value of bond strength between the two groups. The experiments indicate the natural rough surface can enhance the metal-ceramic bond strength to over four times the minimum value （25 MPa） of the ISO 9693：1999 standard. It is found that the natural rough surface of SLM-made PFM can eliminate the porcelain collapse defect produced by traditional casting method in PFM restorations.

In situ monitoring methods for selective laser melting additive manufacturing process based on images-A review

Selective laser melting(SLM)has been widely used in the fields of aviation,aerospace and die manufacturing due to its ability to produce metal components with arbitrarily complex shapes.However,the instability of SLM process often leads to quality fluctuation of the formed component,which hinders the further development and application of SLM.In situ quality control during SLM process is an effective solution to the quality fluctuation of formed components.However,the basic premise of feedback control during SLM process is the rapid and accurate diagnosis of the quality.Therefore,an in situ monitoring method of SLM process,which provides quality diagnosis information for feedback control,became one of the research hotspots in this field in recent years.In this paper,the research progress of in situ monitoring during SLM process based on images is reviewed.Firstly,the significance of in situ monitoring during SLM process is analyzed.Then,the image information source of SLM process,the image acquisition systems for different detection objects(the molten pool region,the scanned layer and the powder spread layer)and the methods of the image information analysis,detection and recognition are reviewed and analyzed.Through review and analysis,it is found that the existing image analysis and detection methods during SLM process are mainly based on traditional image processing methods combined with traditional machine learning models.Finally,the main development direction of in situ monitoring during SLM process is proposed by combining with the frontier technology of image-based computer vision.

Influence of graphene oxide(GO)on microstructure and biodegradation of ZK30-xGO composites prepared by selective laser melting

Different graphene oxide(GO)contents were chosen as the addition to prepare ZK30-xGO composites by selective laser melting(SLM).The microstructure and biodegradation of the SLMed ZK30-xGO composites were investigated.The results indicated that(i)SLM effectively produced a small grain size,(ii)the incorporation of GO into ZK30 caused a further decrease in grain size,and(iii)GO has a strong effect on the formation of the MgZn2 precipitates.The SLMed ZK30-0.6GO had the lowest biodegradation rate,which is attributed to the fact that the effect of the increased grain refinement and decreased amount of the MgZn?precipitates counteracted the effect of the increased GO content on the biodegradation rate.Furthermore,the SLMed ZK30-xGO composites had good cytocompatibility.This work provided a novel approach to the composition design and fabrication of novel biodegradable GO reinforced Mg-based biomedical implants.

Microstructures,Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Pure Tungsten—A Comparison Between Selective Laser Melting and Hot Rolling

A comparative study on the influence of different manufacturing methods(selective laser melting and hot rolling)on the microstructure,mechanical and thermal behaviours of tungsten(W)was presented for the first time.The results indicated that the selective laser melting(SLM)W exhibited a finer grain sizes,a lower strength ductility,hardness and thermal conductivity compared to hot-rolled W.The main reason for this result was that the laser underwent rapid heating and cooling when it was used to melt W powder with high energy density,resulting in large internal stress in the sample after manufacturing.Subsequently,the internal stress was released,leading to the generation of microcracks at the grain boundaries,thereby affecting the performance of SLM W samples.In addition,the higher fraction of high-angle grain boundaries(HAGBs)of SLM W was found to be the key factor for intrinsic brittleness.Because the HAGBs are the preferred crack paths,which could promote crack propagation and decrease fracture energy.

Impact of laser scanning speed on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 alloys by selective laser melting

Inconel 718 alloys were fabricated by selective laser melting under different scanning speeds to investigate the change of the morphology of molten pool,direction of grain growth,and tensile properties.Results show that as the scanning speed increases from 1,000 to 1,450 mm·s^(-1),the ratio between depth and width of molten pool increases,yet their overlapping regimes decrease.Meanwhile,increasing scanning speed can promote the solidified structure evolve from cell to columnar dendrites,and decrease the dendrite spacing from 0.54 to 0.39 μm;the average columnar grain size also decreases from 84.42 to 73.51 μm.At different scanning speeds,the preferred orientation of grains along the building is mainly <001> direction.In addition,the tensile properties of samples under different scanning speeds present a non-monotonic transition.The maximum ultimate tensile strength and elongation can reach 1,014±19 MPa and 19.04±1.12 (%),respectively,at the scanning speed of 1,300 mm·s^(-1).

Cell Proliferation Ability of Mouse Fibroblast-Like Cells and Osteoblast-Like Cells on a Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Film Produced by Selective Laser Melting

Successful regeneration of tissues and organs relies on the application of suitable substrates or scaffolds in scaffold-based regenerative medicine. In this study, Ti-6Al-4V alloy films (Ti alloy film) were produced using a three-dimensional printing technique called Selective Laser Melting (SLM), which is one of the metal additive manufacturing techniques. The thickness of produced Ti alloy film was approximately 250 μm. The laser-irradiated surface of Ti alloy film had a relatively smooth yet porous surface. The non-irradiated surface was also porous but also retained a lot of partially melted Ti-6Al-4V powder. Cell proliferation ability of mouse fibroblast-like cells (L929 cells) and mouse osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1 cells) on both the surfaces of Ti alloy film was examined using WST assay. Both L929 and MC3T3-E1 cells underwent cell proliferation during the culture period. These results indicate that selective laser melting is suitable for producing a cell-compatible Ti-6Al-4V alloy film for biomaterials applications.

基于医学CT与SLM技术的踝关节骨骼逆向建模与制备

基于医学CT与3D打印技术实现了骨骼重建与制造。通过对病人踝关节骨骼原始CT数据的采集,运用医学逆向工程软件Mimics及Geomagic软件对骨骼分别进行三维模型重建和骨骼曲面修复、优化,得到了骨面较为光滑平整的踝关节模型。通过对骨骼模型进行静力学分析,说明在人体结构生物力学条件下,所建立的踝关节三维模型满足力学要求。通过实验获得了TC4钛合金激光选区熔化(SLM)技术的优化工艺参数为激光功率240 W,扫描速度800 mm/s,扫描间距为0.12 mm,铺粉厚度为0.05 mm。采用该工艺参数和所建立的踝关节模型,实现了TC4钛合金踝关节3D打印逆向制造,所得制品的形状与组织成分优,满足医学使用要求。

铝合金叶轮SLM成型摆放及支撑方案仿真与实验

为减少选区激光熔化成型试错次数并高效打印某铝合金潜水泵叶轮,使用ANSYS软件模拟不同摆放和支撑设计方案下叶轮SLM成型过程中的应力、变形和刮刀碰撞。通过对比确定叶轮正置为最优的设计方案,并进行了SLM成型。试制叶轮外表无裂纹和明显变形,内部无大孔隙。对叶轮进行激光扫描偏差分析,发现平均偏差为0.106mm。退火后,试棒抗拉强度可达257~264 MPa,断后伸长率为11%~12%。可见,叶轮SLM成型过程仿真可为同类结构铝合金零件SLM成型摆放与支撑设计提供有益参考。

粉末粒径分布对SLM-GH3536合金熔池形态的影响

激光粉末床增材制造过程通常采用离散元法和计算流体力学相结合的方式对熔融过程进行仿真分析。离散元生成粉末床的质量一定程度上依赖于试验测量的粒度分布数据,通常采用离散的试验测量结果来建立粉末床,不利于对粉末分布形式进行推广。本文针对GH3536合金粉末的激光选区熔化(selective laser melting,SLM)成形过程进行热流耦合仿真,建立了单层单道扫描的三维热流耦合模型。以均匀分布的粉末床为基准,对比了试验测量的离散分布以及近似的对数正态分布粉末床对应的熔池形态差异以及成形效果。结果表明虽然近似的对数正态分布粉末床整体的熔池形貌不如试验分布,但是从外观上看过渡更加均匀,而且仅需要均值和方差信息就可以确定粉末分布形式,这说明近似的概率分布形式虽然与实际情况存在一定差异,但是便于建模和参数分析。此外,本文通过调整激光功率和扫描速度的组合,分析了不同参数组合下熔池轨迹的变化规律。结果表明在能量输入接近的条件下,较低的激光功率和扫描速度具有更好的成形效果。本研究对激光选区熔化成形GH3536合金的仿真建模以及制粉过程有一定的指导作用。

激光功率对PLC控制的SLM成形SiC增强铝基复合材料组织与性能的影响

目的提升激光选区熔化成形(SLM)SiC增强铝基复合材料的力学性能。方法以球形纳米SiC和类球形AlSi10Mg粉末为原料,采用球磨工艺和基于PLC控制的SLM技术制备了SiC增强铝基复合材料(SiC/AlSi10Mg),考察了激光功率对复合材料物相、显微组织和力学性能的影响。结果复合粉末和激光功率为120~240 W的复合材料都主要含Al相和Si相;随着激光功率的增大,Al相择优结晶取向由(111)晶面转变到(200)晶面,在较高激光功率下,SLM成形试样中SiC熔化并与基体材料发生反应形成了Al4SiC4、Al4C3碳化物。在不同激光功率的SLM成形复合材料中都可见暗黑色α-Al基体和灰白色Al-Si共晶;随着激光功率增至210 W,Al-Si共晶组织逐渐碎片化并演变为网状,平均晶粒尺寸和小角度晶界体积分数逐渐增大。当激光功率从150 W增至240 W时,复合材料的纳米硬度和弹性模量先增后减,压缩强度逐渐减小,抗拉强度逐渐增大、断后伸长率先减后增而后又减小。结论当激光功率为210 W时,SiC增强铝基复合材料具有良好的综合力学性能,这主要与组织均匀化、晶粒细化以及碳化物/基体界面结合改善等有关。

工艺参数对SLM成型GH4169合金微观组织和残余应力的影响

在增材制造中,成型工艺参数是影响高温合金微观组织和性能的重要因素。针对GH4169合金,设计了基于激光功率、扫描速度、扫描间距等变量的15组工艺参数,采用选区激光熔化技术(SLM)制备了相应的合金试样,研究了不同工艺参数对试样致密度、微观形貌和残余应力的影响。利用JMP软件建立了工艺参数对试样致密度影响的数学模型,并确定了主要的影响因素。结果表明,扫描速度对致密度的影响最大,其次是激光功率和扫描间距。成型试样的致密度均在99.40%以上,最大可达到99.98%。当激光功率为222 W或扫描速度为1 190 mm/s时,更容易产生未熔合缺陷。当激光功率为403 W或扫描速度为573 mm/s时,由于局部温度过高和反冲压力的升高,容易产生气孔、匙孔等缺陷。试样表面的残余拉应力随着激光功率的增加和扫描速度的降低而增大,残余拉应力的最大值为853 MPa。

SLM成形件切削比能模型建立及影响因素分析

选区激光熔融(SLM)成形件在通过后处理加工提升表面质量时会消耗大量能量,而通过优化切削比能可以提高材料去除率和降低切削力,进而减小加工过程中的能量消耗。因此以SLM Inconel 718成形件为研究对象,建立基于切削力的切削比能模型。结合微铣削正交实验,拟合得到SLM Inconel 718微铣削切削比能与铣削参数的经验公式,并研究不同铣削参数对切削比能的影响规律。结果表明,SLM Inconel 718切削比能经验公式拟合程度在95%以上,切削深度对切削比能影响很小,切削比能随主轴转速和每齿进给量的增加而增加。

Build orientation determination of multi-feature mechanical parts in selective laser melting via multi-objective decision making

Selective laser melting(SLM)is a unique additive manufacturing(AM)category that can be used to manufacture mechanical parts.It has been widely used in aerospace and automotive using metal or alloy powder.The build orientation is crucial in AM because it affects the as-built part,including its part accuracy,surface roughness,support structure,and build time and cost.A mechanical part is usually composed of multiple surface features.The surface features carry the production and design knowledge,which can be utilized in SLM fabrication.This study proposes a method to determine the build orientation of multi-feature mechanical parts(MFMPs)in SLM.First,the surface features of an MFMP are recognized and grouped for formulating the particular optimization objectives.Second,the estimation models of involved optimization objectives are established,and a set of alternative build orientations(ABOs)is further obtained by many-objective optimization.Lastly,a multi-objective decision making method integrated by the technique for order of preference by similarity to the ideal solution and cosine similarity measure is presented to select an optimal build orientation from those ABOs.The weights of the feature groups and considered objectives are achieved by a fuzzy analytical hierarchy process.Two case studies are reported to validate the proposed method with numerical results,and the effectiveness comparison is presented.Physical manufacturing is conducted to prove the performance of the proposed method.The measured average sampling surface roughness of the most crucial feature of the bracket in the original orientation and the orientations obtained by the weighted sum model and the proposed method are 15.82,10.84,and 10.62μm,respectively.The numerical and physical validation results demonstrate that the proposed method is desirable to determine the build orientations of MFMPs with competitive results in SLM.

Selective laser melting(SLM)of CX stainless steel:Theoretical calculation,process optimization and strengthening mechanism

In the present work,selective laser melting(SLM)technology was utilized for manufacturing CX stainless steel samples under a series of laser parameters.The effect of laser linear energy density on the microstructure characteristics,phase distribution,crystallographic orientation and mechanical properties of these CX stainless steel samples were investigated theoretically and experimentally via scanning electron microscope(SEM),X-ray diffraction(XRD),electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscope(TEM).Based on the systematic study,the SLM CX stainless steel sample with best surface roughness(Ra=4.05±1.8μm)and relative density(Rd=99.72%±0.22%)under the optimal linear density(η=245 J/m)can be obtained.SLM CX stainless steel was primarily constituted by a large number of fine martensite(α’phase)structures(i.e.,cell structures,cellular dendrites and blocky grains)and a small quantity of austenite(γphase)structures.The pre ferred crystallographic orientation(i.e.,<111>direction)can be determined in the XZ plane of the SLM CX sample.Furthermore,under the optimal linear energy density,the good combinations with the highest ultimate tensile strength(UTS=1068.0%±5.9%)and the best total elongation(TE=15.70%±0.26%)of the SLM CX sample can be attained.Dislocation strengthening dominates the strengthening mechanism of the SLM CX sample in as-built state.