Three-year Variations of Water, Energy and CO_2 Fluxes of Cropland and Degraded Grassland Surfaces in a Semi-arid Area of Northeastern China

Based on 3 years （2003-05） of the eddy covariance （EC） observations on degraded grassland and cropland surfaces in a semi-arid area of Tongyu （44°25′N, 122°52′E, 184 m a.s.1.）, Northeast China, seasonal and annual variations of water, energy and CO2 fluxes have been investigated. The soil moisture in the thin soil layer （at 0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 m） clearly indicates the pronounced annual wet-dry cycle; the annual cycle is divided into the wet （growing season） and dry seasons （non-growing season）. During the growing season （from May to September）, the sensible and latent heat fluxes showed a linear dependence on the global solar radiation. However, in the non-growing season, the latent heat flux was always less than 50 W m^-2, while the available energy was dissipated as sensible, rather than latent heat flux. During the growing season in 2003-05, the daily average sensible and latent heat fluxes were larger on the cropland surface than on the degraded grassland surface. The cropland ecosystem absorbed more CO2 than the degraded grassland ecosystem in the growing season in 2003-05. The total evapotranspiration on the cropland was more than the total precipitation, while the total evapotranspiration on the degraded grassland was almost the same as the total annual precipitation in the growing season. The soil moisture had a good correlation with the rainfall in the growing season. Precipitation in the growing season is an important factor on the water and carbon budget in the semi-arid area.

Land-Air Interaction over Arid/Semi-arid Areas in China and Its Impact on the East Asian Summer Monsoon. Part I:Calibration of the Land Surface Model (BATS)Using Multicriteria Methods

To improve the land surface simulation in the arid and semi-arid areas of northern China, the observational data from two field experiments in Dunhuang and Tongyu are used to optimize the parameters in the land surface model, BATS, through calibration with the multicriteria method. Sensitivity analysis to the parameters in Dunhuang and Tongyu indicates that different parameters need to be calibrated in two sites with different environmental and climate regimes. Comparison of observed sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, and ground surface temperature with the simulated ones shows the simulations with the optimized parameters have been substantially improved. Especially, the holistic simulations with the calibration of the parameter values are much closer to the observations in the arid region （Dunhuang）, and the energy partition with the calibrated parameters can also be simulated well in the semi-arid region （Tongyu）. Whole results demonstrate that the parameter calibration of the land surface model is important when the model is to be used to investigate the land-air interaction.

The causes of land landscape changes in semi-arid area of Northwest China: a case study of Yulin city

Rapid land landscape change has taken place in many arid and semi-arid regions such as the vulnerable ecological area over the last decade. In this paper, we quantified land landscape change of Yulin in this area between 1985 and 2000 using remote sensing and GIS. It was found that fallow landscape decreased by 125,148 hm^2 while grassland and woodland increased by 107,975 hm^2 and 17,157 hm^2, respectively. The major factors responsible for these changes are identified as the change in the government policy on preserving the environment, continued growth in mining, and urbanization. The efforts in restoring the deteriorated ecosystem have reaped certain benefits in reducing the spatial extent of sandy land through replacement by non-irrigated farmland, woodland and grassland. On the other hand, continued expansion of mining industry and urbanization has exerted adverse impacts on the land landscape. At present regional economic development conflicts directly with the protection of the natural environment. Such a conflict has caused the destruction to the land resources and fragmentation of the landscape accompanied by land desertification, the case is even serious in some localities.

Remote Sensing Parameterization of Land Surface Heat Fluxes over Arid and Semi-arid Areas

Dealing with the regional land surfaces heat fluxes over inhomogeneous land surfaces in arid and semi-arid areas is an important but not an easy issue. In this study, one parameterization method based on satellite remote sensing and field observations is proposed and tested for deriving the regional land surface heat fluxes over inhomogeneous landscapes. As a case study, the method is applied to the Dunhuang experimental area and the HEIFE (Heihe River Field Experiment, 1988-1994) area. The Dunhuang area is selected as a basic experimental area for the Chinese National Key Programme for Developing Basic Sciences: Research on the Formation Mechanism and Prediction Theory of Severe Climate Disaster in China (G1998040900, 1999-2003). The four scenes of Landsat TM data used in this study are 3 June 2000, 22 August 2000, and 29 January 2001 for the Dunhuang area and 9 July 1991 for the HEIFE area. The regional distributions of land surface variables, vegetation variables, and heat fluxes over inhomogeneous landscapes in arid and semi-arid areas are obtained in this study.

Properties of Solar Radiation over Chinese Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

Climatic characteristics of broadband solarradiation (Rs) in Chinese arid and semi-arid areas are reported in this study. The annual average daily Rs in thearid and semi-arid areas is 16.3 ± 5.77 and 15.3 ± 5.16 MJm-2 d-1, respectively. The highest value (17.2 ± 5.84 MJm-2 d-1) appears in an arid area at Linze. The lowest valueappears in the semi-arid area of Ansai. Pronounced seasonal variation of Rs is observed with the highest value insummer and the lowest in winter. The clearness indexshowed similar seasonal pattern at most sites, with theminimum observed in the summer and the highest valuesin winter at both arid and semi-arid areas. The seasonalvariation of the ratio of Rs to its extraterrestrial value Kt inthe arid area is more significant than that observed in thesemi-arid region, and it is caused by the different range ofvariation of water vapor between arid and semi-arid areasThe seasonal fluctuations in Rs and Kt are mainly controlled by the water vapor content in these areas. Theaerosol particles have significant influence on Rs and Kt atstations with higher aerosol burden.

Film mulching treatment inf luences dry matter and yield of oil flax in semi-arid area of China

A feld study was set up to compare dry matter accumulation and grain yield of 3 different types of flm mulching, namely FFC （full flm muched on tiny ridges covered with soil）, PFC （full flm muched covered with soil）, and PF （full flm muched with no cover）. The experiment was laid out in a complete random design with 3 replications at north-west （34°40′N, 105°06′E） of China. This study determined that （1） flm mulching treatment increased leaf area and dry matter accumulation of oil fax in semi-arid areas; （2） accu-mulation of dry matter under PFC treatment was markedly higher than other treatments except anthesis stage; （3） average grain yield of oil fax under flm mulching treatment was 52.67%-60.33% higher than fat plot without mulched or ridge （CK） treatment; （4） grain yield of oil fax was substantially correlated with plant height, grain number and 1,000 kernels weight. This study demonstrated that flm mulching has signifcant effects on crop grain yield improvement in the northwest of China.

Challenges of Implementing Participatory Irrigation Management for Food Security in Semi-arid Areas of Tanzania

Participatory irrigation management （PIM） is theoretically assumed to reduce poverty significantly, but its practical experience and challenges are yet researched and documented in Tanzania. The study aimed at assessing challenges observed during implementation of PIM approach for food security in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. Data were collected through questionnaire, participatory rapid appraisal （PRA） tools, key informants interview, Focus Group Discussion （FGD）, observation and literature review. Data collected from questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS. Data fi＇om other methods were analyzed using content analysis. The study revealed that PIM approach has contribution in improving food security at household level due to involvement of communities in water management activities and decision making, which enhanced availability of irrigation water and increased crop production. However, there were challenges observed during implementation of the approach, including the minimum participation of beneficiaries in decision making during planning and designing stages, which means that inadequate devolution of power among scheme owners, inadequate and lack of transparency on income expenditure in water utilization associations （WUAs）, water conflict among WUAs members, conflict between farmers and livestock keepers and conflict between WUAs and village government leaders regarding training opportunities and status. The rules and regulation of WUAs were not legally recognized by the national courts and few farmers who planted trees around water sources. However, it was realized that some of the mentioned challenges were rectified by farmers themselves and facilitated by government officials. The study recommends that the identified challenges need to be rectified for farmers to realize more on the importance of PIM approach as it was realized in other Asian countries.

Spatial Distribution of Soil Organic Matter and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in Semi-Arid Area of Northeastern Syria

Although soil organic matter (SOM) forms a small portion of the soil body. Nevertheless, it is the most important component of the soil ecosystem, as well as of the carbon global cycle. In the semi-arid environment, there has been little research on the spatial distribution of SOM and soil organic carbon (SOC) stock. In this study, stratified random samples of total 30 soils were collected from two different soil depth (topsoil, subsoil) of Al Balikh plain and used for mapping the spatial variability of SOC and to estimating the SOC stock. The result showed that the values were relatively homogenate, with the normal decreasing trend with increasing the depth. The standard deviation (Std. D) for both SOC and SOC stock indicates homogeneous and absence of outliers values, whereas the coefficient of variation (C.V) indicates non-dispersion and clustering of values around the average. SOC was 0.38%, 0.17% in topsoil and subsoil respectively;the corresponding averages of SOC stock were 1.23 kg·m-2? and 1.14 kg·m-2 respectively, these values reflecting typical characteristics of poor SOC semi-arid soil. The correlation between SOC and SOC stock was (R2 = 0.996, p 2 = 0.941, p < 0.001) for subsoil. The semivariograms were indicated that both SOC and SOC stock were best fitted to the exponential model. Nugget, range, and sill were equal to 0.002, 0.036, and 0.044, respectively for SOC in topsoil, and 0.014, 0.071, and 0.081, for SOC in the subsoil. For SOC stock, it was 0.0, 0.036, and 0.0508, respectively in topsoil. In the subsoil, the values were 0.1899, 0.086, and 4.159, respectively. SOC and SCO stock in both two layers are shown a strong spatial dependence, for which were 4.3, 17.2 for SOC in topsoil and subsoil respectively, and 0.0, 4.5 for SOC stock in topsoil and subsoil respectively, thus, which can be attributed to intrinsic factors.

REGULATING THE INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE IS AN PRINCIPAL APPROACH TO THE ENVIONMENT ADMINISTRATION IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID AREAS

1. The crux of the environment administration problem is theeconomic development As we Know that the evolution of environment is not only due to Nature itself, but al-so to human being particularly. In the course of history, the Loess Plateau in China, oncewoody and rich in plants has now become a serious soil-erosion area on which lies thou-

Features on N/P ratio of plants with different functional groups between two types of steppe in semi-arid area

The differences in nitrogen/phosphorus(N/P)ratios of different functional groups in ecology are more helpful in explaining species competition and community dynamics.Based on the functional groups of plant growth type,carbon metabolism pathway,root type and phylogenetic type,we analyzed characteristics of leaf N/P ratios of 77 species in Sanggendalai(typical grassland zone)of Zhenglan Banner,Inner Mongolia,China and 91 species in the Habahu National Nature Reserve(desertified grassland zone)in Yanchi County of Ningxia,China.The results show that the N/P ratio(16.91)of C3 plants in the desertified steppe was significantly larger than that(12.72)in the typical steppe,but there was no significant difference between the N/P ratios of C4 plants in the two zones.There was no significant difference in N/P ratios between C3 plants and C4 plants in the same zone.Similarly,the N/P ratio(16.60)of dicotyledons in desertified steppe were significantly higher than that(12.98)in typical steppe,while differences in N/P ratios between monocotyledonous plants of the two zones was not significant,and there existed no significant difference in N/P ratios between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants in the same zone.The N/P ratio had significant difference between gramineous and non-gramineous plants in the typical steppe but not in the desertified steppe,but there existed no significant difference in N/P ratios among different root types of perennial herbaceous plants in the same type of steppe or between two types of steppe.Thus,different features on the N/P ratios of C3 plants and dicotyledonous plants between typical steppe and desertified steppe may lead to different growth status of plants,and the N/P ratio stoichiometric of the same plant functional group may be a foundation of the changes of a plant community.

Study of Changing Features of Precipitation from 1900-2010 Years in Africa-Asia Arid and Semi-Arid Area

The relationship between time-space variation characteristics and the variation of the general atmospheric circulation of rainfall occurred in Asia, Africa through North Africa-Middle East-Western Middle Asia-Eastern Middle Asia, Northwest China-Eastern Northwest China-North China and Northeast China is studied based on the analysis of GPCC rainfall data from 1901 to 2010 and annual precipitation in relevant cities of China from 1901 to 2010, and the data of NCEP of surface pressure as well as 500 Hpa potential high from 1950 to 2010. The result shows that the total precipitation presents a decreasing trend in north Africa to the northeast of China in recent 100 years. It has a mutation in 1950s. The precipitation presented a decreasing trend in North Africa and Middle East, in recent 100 years;it presented a further decreasing trend after 1950s. It presented a decreasing trend before 1950s and an increasing trend after 1950s in Middle Asia and Northwest china. It also presented a decreasing trend before 1950s and an increasing trend between 1950s to 1990s, and decreased later in Eastern Northwest China, North China and Northeast China which also presented in a more or less period in different areas from North Africa to Northeast China. The beginning of less precipitation years and less period occurred after it presented less period in north Africa in time and space. After it moved to the east areas as the year past, at last, the SLPA fields which presented more or less precipitations of years from North Africa to Northeast China were analyzed. It also shows that the SLPA fields which presented more were beneficial to the precipitations and presented negative effects of precipitations in the polar, high and mid- and lower latitudes.

Nitrogen source and fate of typical orchard with gentle slope in semi-arid areas

Excessive nitrogen (N) exports caused by human activities are one of the main reasons for the numerous environmental problems in agricultural production. Orchards, as an essential part of agricultural production, play a crucial role in rural economic development and ecological environment construction. Understanding the migration pathways of N in orchards is significant for the scientific management of orchards and the reduction of environmental pollution. In this research, the source and fate of N in a typical orchard in Beijing were quantitatively analyzed. N management strategies were proposed in combination with agricultural production habits. The total N input into the orchard was 487.19 kg/hm^(2)·a, of which 85.44%, 10.99%, 3.30% and 0.27% of N input were from fertilizer application, atmospheric deposition, biological N fixation and pesticide, respectively. A large amount of N fertilizer application was the primary source of N input in the orchard. For the N fate, the N surplus in the soil could reach up to 68.40% of total N inputs, and only 20.16% were absorbed and utilized by plants. The amount of N losses through ammonia volatilization, runoff and sediment, nitrification and denitrification accounted for 10.68%, 0.39% and 0.37%, respectively. N input in the orchard mainly remained in soil, while N loss was mainly through ammonia volatilization. There were 176.72, 99.00, and 57.52 kg/hm^(2)·a N surplus in 0-40 cm, 40-80 cm, and over 80 cm soil layers, respectively. To deal with the N accumulation on the soil surface and the migration of N from the soil surface to the deep layer of orchards, reducing N fertilizer application, substituting circular furrow for the whole orchard fertilization, adjusting irrigation schedule by reducing the amount of single irrigation, increasing the frequency of irrigation to three times in the normal year, and adopting efficient water-saving irrigation technology are realizable methods.

Impact of climate change and human activities on the spatiotemporal dynamics of surface water area in Gansu Province, China

Understanding the dynamics of surface water area and their drivers is crucial for human survival and ecosystem stability in inland arid and semi-arid areas.This study took Gansu Province,China,a typical area with complex terrain and variable climate,as the research subject.Based on Google Earth Engine,we used Landsat data and the Open-surface Water Detection Method with Enhanced Impurity Control method to monitor the spatiotemporal dynamics of surface water area in Gansu Province from 1985 to 2022,and quantitatively analyzed the main causes of regional differences in surface water area.The findings revealed that surface water area in Gansu Province expanded by 406.88 km2 from 1985 to 2022.Seasonal surface water area exhibited significant fluctuations,while permanent surface water area showed a steady increase.Notably,terrestrial water storage exhibited a trend of first decreasing and then increasing,correlated with the dynamics of surface water area.Climate change and human activities jointly affected surface hydrological processes,with the impact of climate change being slightly higher than that of human activities.Spatially,climate change affected the'source'of surface water to a greater extent,while human activities tended to affect the'destination'of surface water.Challenges of surface water resources faced by inland arid and semi-arid areas like Gansu Province are multifaceted.Therefore,we summarized the surface hydrology patterns typical in inland arid and semi-arid areas and tailored surface water'supply-demand'balance strategies.The study not only sheds light on the dynamics of surface water area in Gansu Province,but also offers valuable insights for ecological protection and surface water resource management in inland arid and semi-arid areas facing water scarcity.

Ecological-Based Mining:A Coal-Water-Thermal Collaborative Paradigm in Ecologically Fragile Areas in Western China

A substantial reduction in groundwater level,exacerbated by coal mining activities,is intensifying water scarcity in western China’s ecologically fragile coal mining areas.China’s national strategic goal of achieving a carbon peak and carbon neutrality has made eco-friendly mining that prioritizes the protection and efficient use of water resources essential.Based on the resource characteristics of mine water and heat hazards,an intensive coal-water-thermal collaborative co-mining paradigm for the duration of the mining process is proposed.An integrated system for the production,supply,and storage of mining companion resources is achieved through technologies such as roof water inrush prevention and control,hydrothermal quality improvement,and deep-injection geological storage.An active preventive and control system achieved by adjusting the mining technology and a passive system centered on multiobjective drainage and grouting treatment are suggested,in accordance with the original geological characteristics and dynamic process of water inrush.By implementing advanced multi-objective drainage,specifically designed to address the“skylight-type”water inrush mode in the Yulin mining area of Shaanxi Province,a substantial reduction of 50%in water drillings and inflow was achieved,leading to stabilized water conditions that effectively ensure subsequent safe coal mining.An integrated-energy complementary model that incorporates the clean production concept of heat utilization is also proposed.The findings indicate a potential saving of 8419 t of standard coal by using water and air heat as an alternative heating source for the Xiaojihan coalmine,resulting in an impressive energy conservation of 50.2%and a notable 24.2%reduction in carbon emissions.The ultra-deep sustained water injection of 100 m^(3)·h^(-1)in a single well would not rupture the formation or cause water leakage,and 7.87×10^(5)t of mine water could be effectively stored in the Liujiagou Formation,presenting a viable method for mine-water management in the Ordos Basin and providing insights for green and low-carbon mining.

Correlation of periodontal inflamed surface area with glycated hemoglobin,interleukin-6 and lipoprotein(a)in type 2 diabetes with retinopathy

BACKGROUND The two-way relationship between periodontitis and type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM)is well established.Prolonged hyperglycemia contributes to increased periodontal destruction and severe periodontitis,accentuating diabetic complications.An inflammatory link exists between diabetic retinopathy(DR)and periodontitis,but the studies regarding this association and the role of lipoprotein(a)[Lp(a)]and interleukin-6(IL-6)in these conditions are scarce in the literature.AIM To determine the correlation of periodontal inflamed surface area(PISA)with glycated Hb(HbA1c),serum IL-6 and Lp(a)in T2DM subjects with retinopathy.METHODS This cross-sectional study comprised 40 T2DM subjects with DR and 40 T2DM subjects without DR.All subjects were assessed for periodontal parameters[bleeding on probing(BOP),probing pocket depth,clinical attachment loss(CAL),oral hygiene index-simplified,plaque index(PI)and PISA],and systemic parameters[HbA1c,fasting plasma glucose and postprandial plasma glucose,fasting lipid profile,serum IL-6 and serum Lp(a)].RESULTS The proportion of periodontitis in T2DM with and without DR was 47.5%and 27.5%respectively.Severity of periodontitis,CAL,PISA,IL-6 and Lp(a)were higher in T2DM with DR group compared to T2DM without DR group.Significant difference was observed in the mean percentage of sites with BOP between T2DM with DR(69%)and T2DM without DR(41%),but there was no significant difference in PI(P>0.05).HbA1c was positively correlated with CAL(r=0.351,P=0.001),and PISA(r=0.393,P≤0.001)in study subjects.A positive correlation was found between PISA and IL-6(r=0.651,P<0.0001);PISA and Lp(a)(r=0.59,P<0.001);CAL and IL-6(r=0.527,P<0.0001)and CAL and Lp(a)(r=0.631,P<0.001)among study subjects.CONCLUSION Despite both groups having poor glycemic control and comparable plaque scores,the periodontal parameters were higher in DR as compared to T2DM without DR.Since a bidirectional link exists between periodontitis and DM,the presence of DR may have contributed to the severity of periodontal destruction and periodontitis may have influenced the progression of DR.

Research on the Relationship Between Environmental and Economic Coupling Systems in Bohai Bay Area Based on a Vector Autoregression(VAR)Model

This study analyzed the impact of land-based contaminants and tertiary industrial structure on economic development in the selected Bohai Bay area,China.Based on panel data spanning 2011-2020,a vector autoregressive(VAR)model is used to analyze and forecast the short-run and long-run relationships between three industrial structures,pollutant discharge,and economic development.The results showed that the environmental index had a long-term cointegration relationship with the industrial structure economic index.Per capital chemical oxygen demand(PCOD)and per capita ammonia nitrogen(PNH_(3)N)had a positive impact on delta per capita GDP(dPGDP),while per capita solid waste(PSW),the secondary industry rate(SIR)and delta tertiary industry(dTIR)had a negative impact on dPGDP.The VAR model under this coupling system had stability and credibility.The impulse response results showed that the short-term effect of the coupling system on dPGDP was basically consistent with the Granger causality test results.In addition,variance decomposition was used in this study to predict the long-term impact of the coupling system in the next ten periods(i.e.,ten years).It was found that dTIR had a great impact on dPGDP,with a contribution rate as high as 74.35%in the tenth period,followed by the contribution rate of PCOD up to 3.94%,while the long-term contribution rates of PSW,SIR and PNH3N were all less than 1%.The results show that the government should support the development of the tertiary industry to maintain the vitality of economic development and prevent environmental deterioration.

Seismic response of a mid-story isolated structure considering SSI in mountainous areas under long-period earthquakes

At present,there is not much research on mid-story isolated structures in mountainous areas.In this study,a model of a mid-story isolated structure considering soil-structure interaction(SSI)in mountainous areas is established along with a model that does not consider SSI.Eight long-period earthquake waves and two ordinary earthquake waves are selected as inputs for the dynamic time history analysis of the structure.The results show that the seismic response of a mid-story isolated structure considering SSI in mountainous areas can be amplified when compared with a structure that does not consider SSI.The structure response under long-period earthquakes is larger than that of ordinary earthquakes.The structure response under far-field harmonic-like earthquakes is larger than that of near-fault pulse-type earthquakes.The structure response under near-fault pulse-type earthquakes is larger than that of far-field non-harmonic earthquakes.When subjected to long-period earthquakes,the displacement of the isolated bearings exceeded the limit value,which led to instability and overturning of the structure.The structure with dampers in the isolated story could adequately control the nonlinear response of the structure,effectively reduce the displacement of the isolated bearings,and provide a convenient,efficient and economic method not only for new construction but also to retrofit existing structures.

Changes in climatic conditions drive variations in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi diversity and composition in semi-arid oak forests

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi(AMF)play a vital role in plant productivity and ecosystem functions.However,their responses to abiotic factors(i.e.,climate,physiography,and soil properties)are unknown,especially across climatic gradients and slope aspects in arid and semi-arid ecosys-tems.In this study,using 60 composite soil samples,direct and indirect effects of climate factors and slope aspects on AMF diversity,composition and spore density were studied.The findings indicate that climate has a more direct influ-ence on soil properties(P<0.001)in comparison to slope aspect(P=0.449).In contrast,climate significantly affected AMF diversity and composition,with the highest diversity in dryer areas.Soil pH had the highest correlation with different facets of AMF diversity.Structural equation modeling(SEM)indicated that only a small part of the variation in AMF diversity and spore density could be explained by climate characteristics,slope aspect and soil properties.Based on SEM results,climate was the most important determinant of AMF diversity and spore density;slope aspect had a less critical role.The outputs suggest that variations in AMF diversity are derived by the direct effects of climate and the indirect effect of soil chemical properties.In addition,with increasing dryness,sporulation and AMF diversity increased.

Diversity of Orchids in Terms of Their Distribution, Uses and Conservation in Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal

The Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), the first conservation area and the largest protected area (PA) in Nepal, is incredibly rich in biodiversity. Notwithstanding this, orchids in the ACA have not been explored enough yet thus making the need for ambitious research to be carried out. Previous study only included 81 species of orchids within ACA. This study aims to update the record of species and genera richness in the ACA. In total 198 species of orchids, belonging to 67 genera (40% and 62% of the total recorded orchid species and genera in Nepal) has been recorded in ACA. This represents an increase of 144% in species and 56% in genera over the previous data. Out of the 198 species, 99 were epiphytes, 6 were holomycotrophic and 93 were terrestrial. Among the 67 genera, Bulbophyllum (17) species were dominant, followed by Dendrobium (16), Herminium (10), Coelogyne, Plantanthera (9 each), Eria, Habenaria, Oberonia (8 each), Calanthe (7), and Liparis (6). Fifty-six species were found to be ornamentally significant and 85 species medicinally significant.