NUTRIENT USE EFFICIENCY AND LOSSES OF INDUSTRIAL FARMS AND MIXED SMALLHOLDINGS:LESSONS FROM THE NORTH CHINA PLAIN

The proportion of industrial livestock in China has increased over the past 30 years,which increases animal performance but causes the decoupling of crop and livestock production.Here,we aimed to quantify nutrient flows,nutrient use efficiency,and nutrient losses in different livestock systems in the North China Plain based on the NUFER-farm model.Activity data were collected by face-to-face surveys on pig and dairy(41 livestock farms)during 2016-2018.The two systems included industrial farms and mixed smallholdings.In mixed smallholdings,4.0%and 9.6%of pig and dairy feed dry matter(DM)were derived from household farmland,but 4.8%and 9.3%of manure DM recycled to household farmland.Nutrient use efficiency in industrial farms was higher than in mixed smallholdings at animal level,herd level,and system level.To produce 1 kg N and P in animal products,nutrient losses in industrial pig farms(2.0 kg N and 1.3 kg P)were lower than in mixed pig smallholdings,nutrient losses in industrial dairy farms(2.7 kg N and 2.2 kg P)were slightly higher than in mixed dairy smallholdings.Liquid manure discharge in industrial farms was the main losses pathway in contrast to mixed smallholdings.This study suggests that feed localization can reduce nutrient surpluses at the district level.It is necessary to improve manure management and increase the degree of integrated crop-livestock in smallholdings.In industrial farms,it is desirable to increase the liquid manure recycling ratio through cooperating livestock and crop production at the district level.

Climatic and non-climatic factors driving the livelihood vulnerability of smallholder farmers in Ahafo Ano North District,Ghana

Smallholder farmers in Ahafo Ano North District,Ghana,face multiple climatic and non-climatic issues.This study assessed the factors contributing to the livelihood vulnerability of smallholder farmers in this district by household surveys with 200 respondents and focus group discussions(FGDs)with 10 respondents.The Mann–Kendall trend test was used to assess mean annual rainfall and temperature trends from 2002 to 2022.The relative importance index(RII)value was used to rank the climatic and non-climatic factors perceived by respondents.The socioeconomic characteristics affecting smallholder farmers’perceptions of climatic and non-climatic factors were evaluated by the binary logistic regression model.Results showed that mean annual rainfall decreased(P>0.05)but mean annual temperature significantly increased(P<0.05)from 2002 to 2022 in the district.The key climatic factors perceived by smallholder farmers were extreme heat or increasing temperature(RII=0.498),erratic rainfall(RII=0.485),and increased windstorms(RII=0.475).The critical non-climatic factors were high cost of farm inputs(RII=0.485),high cost of healthcare(RII=0.435),and poor condition of roads to farms(RII=0.415).Smallholder farmers’perceptions of climatic and non-climatic factors were significantly affected by their socioeconomic characteristics(P<0.05).This study concluded that these factors negatively impact the livelihoods and well-being of smallholder farmers and socioeconomic characteristics influence their perceptions of these factors.Therefore,to enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change,it is necessary to adopt a comprehensive and context-specific approach that accounts for climatic and non-climatic factors.

Demography and Socio-Economic Aspects on Irrigated Smallholder Agricultural Enterprises and Their Association with the Cultivation of Maize (Zea mays L.) as a Selected Field Crop

The purpose of this study is to correlate demography and socio-economic aspects at Irrigated Smallholder Agricultural Enterprises and their association with the Cultivation of Maize in order to determine its positive impacts at irrigated smallholders’ agricultural entrepreneurs’ household. Chi-square test was used as descriptive analysis method. The Fischer Exact tests were employed to test demography (gender, age, education, and income) in winter and summer production season of irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprises and their association with the cultivation of selected field crop (i.e. maize). The results show that gender results were not being statistically significant, as measured by the Phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.149, p = 0.011, and φ = 0.05, p = 0.392 in summer. As far as age is concern, it appears to be a statistically significant association between cultivating maize and age in winter, φ = 0.046, p = 0.730 in winter and φ = 0.172, p = 0.013. Education winter result not being statistically significant, the effect size showed a weak association, as measured by the Phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.112, p = 0.305 and φ = 0.035, p = 0.948 in summer. Income result not being statistically significant, as measured by the Phi measure of effect size, φ = 0.049, p = 0.399 and φ = 0.081, p = 0.166 in summer. In conclusion, the study shows that the development of best management practices must be based on a comprehensive analysis of the livelihoods and irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprise farming styles of participating irrigated smallholder agricultural entrepreneurs.

Cattle Production and Lumpy Skin Disease of Smallholder Farmers in Svay Rieng Province

The cattle production in Romeas Haek district,Svay Rieng province,was developed remarkably,since there were some households raising cattle in large number,more than 20 heads.The grazing method of cattle was tethering and free grassing in the commune grass,since the natural grass and rice straw were the main source of cattle feed,however some of them supplemented their cattle with crop-byproducts,planting grass or concentrated feed.For the majority,BCS(Body Condition Scoring)of the cattle in those areas was 3 accounting for 52%-73.33%,but it was found the thin cattle has low BCS of 2 accounting for 11.11%to 40.00%and also fat cattle has BCS of 4 up to 27.78%.However,the average BCS varied with village which ranged from 2.68 to 3.17,but is not different in term of commune and sex of cattle.Besides facing with shortage of feed,the experience with diseases was also another concern,since 85.71%to 95.83%of the households faced this problem last year.Among the clinical signs found,lumpy skin was 100%,i.e.no one escaped from this problem,thus making them aware of vaccinating their cattle against some diseases such as FMD(Foot and Mouth Disease),HS(Hemorrhagic Septicemia)and LSD(Lumpy Skin Disease),but mostly vaccination was used against FMD.Because the LSD has occurred in these areas since 2020,then the seroprevalence was found in high positive up to 72.62%by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay(ELISA)test.This positive rate was also varying by villages,ranging from 53.3%to 94.44%.But there was no association between positive cattle with commune,BCS,sex and age of cattle.In conclusion,the cattle production in Romeas Haek district,Svay Rieng province had developed markedly,however the shortage of feed and disease occurrence are the main challenges for farmer cattle producers,especially LSD outbreak last year.However,most of the farmers have been aware of the benefit of vaccination and had vaccinated their cattle against those main disease,such as FMD,HS and LSD.

Navigating Market Choices: Understanding Carrot Market Outlet Selection among Smallholder Farmers in Kenya

This research delves into the hurdles and strategies aimed at augmenting the market involvement of smallholder carrot farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya. Employing a Multinomial Logit (MNL) model, it scrutinizes the factors influencing the selection of marketing outlets among carrot farmers. The findings unveil that a significant majority (81%) of surveyed farmers actively participate in diverse market outlets, encompassing the farm gate, cleaning point, local market, external market, and export market. Notably, pivotal buyers include aggregators, brokers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers, with transactions predominantly occurring at the farm level. Additionally, the analysis discerns substantial influences of socio-economic characteristics, experiential factors, and geographical proximity on farmers’ choices of market outlets. Specifically, gender, age, land size, farming experience, and distance to markets emerge as critical determinants. Moreover, the study delves into the examination of market margins along the carrot value chain, shedding light on the potential profitability of carrot farming in the region. Remarkably, higher average gross margins are identified in export and external markets, signaling lucrative prospects for farmers targeting these segments. However, disparities in profit distribution between farmers and traders underscore the necessity for interventions to ensure equitable value distribution throughout the value chain. These findings underscore the imperative for tailored interventions to tackle challenges and foster inclusive agricultural development. Strategies such as farmer organizations, contracting, and vertical integration are advocated to enhance market access and profitability for smallholder carrot farmers. Thus, this study enriches our comprehension of the dynamics within carrot value chains and provides valuable insights for policymakers and development practitioners aiming to uplift rural livelihoods and bolster food security.

Science and Technology Backyard: A novel approach to empower smallholder farmers for sustainable intensification of agriculture in China

Sustainable feeding of the growing population in China without ecological destabilization is a grand challenge. In this populous country where agriculture is dominated by smallholder farming, developing innovative technology and translating scientific knowledge into action for smallholder farmers is a crucial step in addressing this challenge. Here, we present a novel approach for technology innovation and dissemination to achieve sustainable intensification in the fields of smallholder farmers. The Science and Technology Backyard(STB) is a hub in a rural area that links knowledge with practices to promote technology innovation and exchange. In this study, the framework and functions of STB are introduced, and the key implications for sustainable intensification across millions of smallholder farmers are explicitly stated:(i) develop innovative technology based on stated demands of farmers;(ii) disseminate technology by innovative social service models though combined top-down approaches with bottom-up measures to enable smallholders in rural areas. This paper provides a perspective on transformation of small-scale agriculture toward sustainable intensification in China and useful knowledge applicable to other developing countries.

Identifying the limiting factors driving the winter wheat yield gap on smallholder farms by agronomic diagnosis in North China Plain

North China Plain(NCP) is the primary winter wheat production region in China, characterized by smallholder farming systems. Whereas the winter wheat average yield of smallholder farmers is currently low, the yield potential and limiting factors driving the current yield gap remain unclear. Therefore, increasing the wheat yield in NCP is essential for the national food security. This study monitored wheat yield, management practices and soil nutrient data in 132 farmers’ fields of Xushui County, Baoding City, Hebei Province during 2014–2016. These data were analyzed using variance and path analysis to determine the yield gap and the contribution of yield components(i.e., spikes per hectare, grain number per spike and 1 000-grain weight) to wheat yield. Then, the limiting factors of yield components and the optimizing strategies were identified by a boundary line approach. The results showed that the attainable potential yield for winter wheat was 10 514 kg ha^–1. The yield gaps varied strongly between three yield groups(i.e., high, middle and low), which were divided by yield level and contained 44 farmers in each group, and amounted to 2 493, 1 636 and 814 kg ha^–1, respectively. For the three yield components, only spikes per hectare was significantly different(P<0.01) among the three yield groups. For all 132 farmers’ fields, correlation between yield and spikes per hectare(r=0.51, P<0.01), was significantly positive, while correlations with grain number per spike(r=–0.16) and 1 000-grain weight(r=–0.10) were not significant. The path analysis also showed that the spikes per hectare of winter wheat were the most important component to the wheat yield. Boundary line analysis showed that seeding date was the most limiting factor of spikes per hectare with the highest contribution rate(26.7%), followed by basal N input(22.1%) and seeding rate(14.5%), which indicated that management factors in the seeding step were the most important for affecting spikes per hectare. For desired spikes per hectare(>6.598×10^6 ha^–1),the seeding rate should range from 210–300 kg ha^–1, seeding date should range from 3th to 8th October, and basal N input should range from 90–180 kg ha^–1. Compared to these reasonable ranges of management measures, most of the farmers’ practices were not suitable, and both lower and higher levels of management existed. It is concluded that the strategies for optimizing yield components could be achieved by improving wheat seeding quality and optimizing farmers’ nutrient management practices in the NCP.

Does Internet use promote the adoption of agricultural technology?Evidence from 1449 farm households in 14 Chinese provinces

China is characterized as ’a large country with many smallholder farmers’ whose participation in modern agriculture is key to the country’s modern agriculture development. Promoting smallholder farmers’ adoption of modern agricultural production technology is one effective way to improve the capabilities of smallholder farmers. This paper aims to explore the impact of Internet use on the adoption of agricultural production technology by smallholder farmers based on a survey of 1 449 smallholders across 14 provinces in China. The results suggest that Internet use can significantly promote technology adoption, with the probability of adopting new crop varieties, water-saving irrigation technology and straw-returning technology increasing by 0.200, 0.157 and 0.155, respectively. Furthermore, the effect of Internet use is found to be heterogeneous with a greater effect on smallholder farmers having low education levels, limited training, and high incomes. To increase agricultural production technology adoption by smallholders, rural Internet infrastructure and Internet use promotion should be the focus for the Chinese government.

Correlation of production constraints with the yield gap of apple cropping systems in Luochuan County, China

Apple occupies a dominant position in fruit production globally, and has become the main income source of local smallholder farmers in Luochuan County in the Loess Plateau area, one of the largest apple production areas in China. However, the annual productivity of apple orchards in this region remains low and has gradually declined over the years. The distinction and correlation of production constraints can contribute to the promotion of apple orchard productivity and the development of a sustainable orchard system. In the present study, survey data from 71 smallholder farmers were analyzed using a yield gap model to distinguish the production constraints and determine their correlation with the yield gap based on the structural equation model(SEM). The results indicated that the average apple yield in Luochuan County was 29.9 t ha^–1 yr^–1, while the attainable yield(Yatt;the highest yield obtained from the on-farm surveys) was 58.1 t ha^–1 yr^–1. The average explained and unexplainable yield gaps were 26.3 and 1.87 t ha^–1 yr^–1. According to the boundary line analysis, crop load,number of sprayings and base fertilizer N were the top three constraints on apple production in 9.8, 7.8 and 7.8% of the plots, respectively. Among the production constraints, crop load and fruit weight affected apple yield through direct pathways,whereas other constraints influenced apple yield through an indirect pathway based on the SEM, explaining 51% of the yield variance by all the main production constraints. These results can improve the current understanding of production constraints and contribute to the development of management strategies and policies for improving apple yield.

Yield gap and production constraints of mango (Mangifera indica) cropping systems in Tianyang County, China

Mango is an important cash crop in the tropics and subtropics. Determining the yield gap of mango and production constraints can potentially promote the sustainable development of the mango industry. In this study, boundary line analysis based on survey data from 103 smallholder farmers and a yield gap model were used to determine the yield gap and production constraints in mango plantations in the northern mountain, central valley and southern mountains regions of Tianyang County, Guangxi, China. The results indicated that the yield of mango in three representing regions of Tianyang County,Northern Mountains, Central Valley and Southern Mountains, was 18.3, 17.0 and 15.4 t ha^–1 yr^–1, with an explainable yield gap of 10.9, 6.1 and 14.8 t ha^–1 yr^–1, respectively. Fertilization management, including fertilizer N, P2O5 and K2O application rates, and planting density were the main limiting factors of mango yield in all three regions. In addition, tree age influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains(11.1%) and Central Valley(11.7%) regions. Irrigation time influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains(9.9%) and Southern Mountains(12.2%). Based on a scenario analysis, the predicted yield would increase by up to 50%, and fertilizer N use would be reduced by as much as approximately 20%. An improved understanding of production constraints will aid in the development of management strategy measures to increase mango yield.

Developing sustainable summer maize production for smallholder farmers in the North China Plain: An agronomic diagnosis method

With an increasing population and changing diet structure, summer maize is increasingly becoming an important energy crop in China. However, traditional farmer practices for maize production are inefficient and unsustainable. To ensure food security and sustainable development of summer maize production in China, an improved, more sustainable farmer management system is needed. Establishing this system requires a comprehensive understanding of the limitations of current farming practice and the ways it could be improved. In our study, 235 plots from three villages in the North China Plain(NCP) were monitored. Maize production on farms was evaluated;our results showed that the maize yield and nitrogen partial factor productivity(PFPN) were variable on smallholder farms at 6.6–13.7 t ha^–1 and 15.4–88.7 kg kg^–1, respectively.Traditional farming practices also have a large environmental impact(nitrogen surplus:–64.2–323.78 kg ha^–1). Key yield components were identified by agronomic diagnosis. Grain yield depend heavily on grain numbers per hectare rather than on the 1 000-grain weight. A set of improved management practices(IP) for maize production was designed by employing a boundary line(BL) approach and tested on farms. Results showed that the IP could increase yield by 18.4% and PFPN by 31.1%, compared with traditional farmer practices(FP), and reduce the nitrogen(N) surplus by 57.9 kg ha^–1. However,in terms of IP effect, there was a large heterogeneity among different smallholder farmers’ fields, meaning that, precise technologies were needed in different sites especially for N fertilizer management. Our results are valuable for policymakers and smallholder farmers for meeting the objectives of green development in agricultural production.

Determinants of Adoption of Improved Rice Varieties in Northern Sindh, Pakistan

Adoption of certified and improved high-yielding crop varieties is important avenue for increasing agricultural productivity and improving the living standard of the farmers in developing countries. The main objective of the current study was to examine factors affecting adoption of improved rice varieties by smallholder farmers in Northern Sindh, Pakistan. The random sampling technique was used to collect data from 220 smallholder rice farmers through the face to face interview. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and probit regression model. The empirical results showed that year of education(P ≤ 0.093), farming experience(P ≤ 0.043), soil quality(P ≤ 0.077), farm machinery ownership(P ≤ 0.000), access to market information(P ≤ 0.055) and contact with extension agents(P ≤ 0.006) had significantly positive influence on adoption of improved rice variety, while age(P ≤ 0.053) had significantly negative effect.

A comprehensive approach for assessing the economic contribution of forage and livestock improvement options to smallholder farming enterprises

The importance of livestock production activities to improving the livelihoods of smallholder farming households and the efficiency of their underlying farming systems is increasingly recognized.A rapid increase in livestock numbers, especially beef cattle, and special purpose forages is being promoted for smallholder farms which have traditionally undertaken subsistence cropping activities or simple livestock rearing activities using low quality feedstuffs.Because limited plantings of specialized forages combined with a poor knowledge of animal nutrition are a challenge to establishing sustainable livestock enterprises, much public policy and research is now being focused on the use of new forages and improved feeding practices.A number of economic studies have suggested that specialized forage growing and livestock feeding activities can make a positive contribution to smallholder welfare.The studies have typically compared the total level of farm or household income with and without livestock activities.Little attention is given to how much the new forage or livestock activities actually contribute to or draw resources from other farm activities to assess their real economic contribution to the enterprise, and the availability of simple tools to assist in making such assessments are limited.This paper describes a simple modelling approach that was developed for an Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research（ACIAR）-supported project to explore the real as opposed to apparent economic impact of integrating improved forages and livestock within smallholder farming systems in the Red Soils region of south-central China.Application of the model is demonstrated using a simple case study of a smallholder enterprise that plans to introduce a new beef cattle rearing activity to its existing farm activity mix.The case study highlights the importance of explicitly valuing transfers of resources between different farm activities to gauge the real contribution of those activities to economic returns.

Can food security and low carbon be achieved simultaneously?——An empirical analysis of the mechanisms influencing the carbon footprint of potato and corn cultivation in irrigation areas

Irrigated agriculture has tripled since 1950,accounting for 20%of the global arable land and 40%of food production.Irrigated agriculture increases food security yet has controversial implications for global climate change.Most previous studies have calculated carbon emissions and their composition in irrigated areas using the engineering approach to life-cycle assessment.By combining life cycle assessment(LCA)-based carbon emissions accounting with econometric models such as multiple linear regression and structural equation modeling(SEM),we conducted an interdisciplinary study to identify the influencing factors and internal mechanisms of the carbon footprint(CFP)of smallholder crop cultivation on irrigation reform pilot areas.To this end,we investigated corn and potato production data in the 2019–2020 crop years for 852 plots of 345 rural households in six villages(two irrigation agriculture pilot villages and four surrounding villages as controls)in Southwest China.The crop CFP in the irrigation agriculture pilot areas was significantly lower than in non-reform areas.Irrigation reforms mainly impacted the crop CFP through four intermediary effects:the project(implementation of field irrigation channels),technology(improving adoption of new irrigation technologies),management(proper irrigation operation and maintenance),and yield effects.All effects inhibited the CFP,except for the project effect that promotes carbon emissions.Among them,yield increase has the greatest impact on reducing CFP,followed by management and technology effects.Furthermore,planting practices,individual characteristics,and plot quality significantly impacted the crop CFP.This study has policy implications for understanding the food security–climate nexus in the food production industry.

Choice of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability among Smallholder Farmers in the Maize Based Cropping System in Namutumba District, Uganda

Smallholder farmers in Namutumba district draw on a combination of adaptation strategies to respond to effects of climate variability. However, there is limited scholarly evidence and explanation that has been conducted on the factors that influence the choice of alternative sets of strategies that smallholder farmers use in response to climate variability specific stress and literature that disentangles climatic stressors specific adaptation options. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select the study area and household respondents. The study used cross-sectional research design to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Household data was collected from 160 respondents with a structured questionnaire supported by key informant interviews. Multinomial logit modeling (MNL) was used to determine the relative influence of selected household socio-demographic factors on the choice of adaptation strategies against the dry spell. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was used to create weighted adaptation index for categorizing various similar adaptation strategies. In order to respond to the impact of climate variability stresses, smallholder farmers have adapted growing drought-resistant crops (12.2%), extension of the agricultural frontier into wetlands during the dry spells (37%), whereas use of crop rotation (9.8%) is the most dominant strategies used to manage pest and diseases, similarly soil and water conservation (15.3%) and climate-smart planning basin (11%) are the most dominant adaptation strategies use to manage flood. Empirical results from multinomial logit modeling showed that predictor variables gender, level of education, years of farming, house size, access to credit, and own radio have a significant influence on the choice of adaptation strategies with differences significant level during the dry spell. The study recommends that future policies should focus on strengthening the existing extension training package, strengthening the existing farmer’s groups and cooperatives, encouraging informal social networks in order to boost smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate variability.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Intermittently Flooded (Dambo) Rice under Different Tillage Practices in Chiota Smallholder Farming Area of Zimbabwe

Agriculture is one of the biggest sources of greenhouse gases. Rice production has been identified as one of the major sources of greenhouse gases, especially methane. However, data on the contributions of rice towards greenhouse gas emissions in tropical Africa are limited. In Zimbabwe, as in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, there are very few studies that have explored greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural lands. This study reports the first dataset on greenhouse gas emissions from intermittently flooded rice paddies in Zimbabwe. The objective of this study was to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from dambo rice under different tillage treatments, which were conventional tillage, no tillage, tied ridges, tied fallows, and mulching. Average soil nitrous oxide emissions were 5.9, 0.2, 5.4, 5.2 and 7.8 μg·m-2·hr-1 for tied fallows, conventional tillage, tied ridges, mulching and no tillage respectively. Average methane emission was 0.35 mg·m-2·hr-1 and maximum as 1.62 mg·m-2·hr-1. Average methane emissions for the different tillage systems were 0.20, 0.18, 0.45, 0.52 and 0.38 mg·m-2·hr-1 for tied fallows, conventional tillage, tied ridges, mulching and no tillage respectively. Carbon dioxide emissions were 98.1, 56.0, 69.9, 94.8 and 95.5 mg·m-2·hr-1 for tied fallows, conventional tillage, tied ridges, mulching and no tillage respectively. The estimated emissions per 150 day cropping season were 1.4, 3.6 and 0.6 kg·ha-1 for methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide respectively. We concluded that intermittently saturated dambo rice Paddys are a potential source of greenhouse gases which is important to global greenhouse gas budgets, thus, they deserve more careful study.

Adaptation to Climate Change in the Pastoral and Agropastoral Systems of Borana, South Ethiopia: Options and Barriers

The pastoral and agropastoral systems of the Borana in southern Ethiopia are highly vulnerable to climate change and its impacts. Assistance to enable these smallholders to successfully adapt to future climate change in locally relevant ways can be usefully informed by the analysis and better understanding of past and ongoing adaptation. We conducted farm household surveys, focus group discussions, expert consultations and secondary data collation in 2012 in the Borana. The study employed a combination of Pressure-State-Response (PSR) framework to analyse how climate change put pressure on pastoral and agropastoral farming systems and livelihoods, and Pelling’s (2011) typological framework to analyse local adaptation responses. Results showed that pastoral and agropastoral households, their communities and institutions adopted a wide range of adaptation options primarily through adjusting their farming practices and diversifying into non-pastoral livelihoods. The smallholders primarily pursued a resilience approach to adaptation with short term goals intended to avoid system disruptions instead of long-term transformational approaches that significantly address the root causes of vulnerability. A range of barriers constrained local adaptive capacity and shaped routes for adaptation. Adaptation pathways that address critical barriers to adapt, integrate indigenous institutions into adaptation and link adaptation with local development process are necessary to bring long-term and non-marginal, major changes that reduce vulnerability and ensure co-benefit of improving livelihoods.

Waste Management Systems among Smallholder Farmers in Masaka and Lyantonde Districts, Central Uganda

With diversity in farming systems, crop residues, animal wastes and management practices are often not well managed, and most of it is left on the soil surface. This practice is common, especially among smallholder farmers (SHFs). There is no updated record of commonly used waste management practices. Our study focused on smallholder farmers in two farming systems in Masaka and Lyantonde Districts respectively, and with the objective to determine smallholder waste management practices in relation to farm waste components. Using a sample survey, quantitative data were collected from 120 SHFs representing 10.1% of the total SHF population in the Masaka while 120 SHFs provided data and represented 17.4% of the total SHF population in Lyantonde. Our result revealed that for animal waste, Goat slurry 20.4%, dominated the rest in Lyantonde, while in Masaka Pig slurry 23.6%, was dominant. For crop waste in Lyantonde, Bean trashes 12.9%, dominated, while in Masaka Banana leaves and peelings 11.1%, were dominant. In Lyantonde, common waste management practices were: Surface deposition 41.2%, Burning 18.4% Composting 17.3%, Burying 9.4%, Removal 10.9% and Recycling 2.8%. In Masaka, common practices were: Surface deposition 40.9%, Burning 18.6% Composting 13.2%, Burrying 12.3%, Removal 6.2% and Recycling 8.8%. Factors affecting choice of waste management practices by SHFs were: Age, purpose of waste product, season, quantity of the wastes, waste management policy awareness, farmer’s commitment and economic status of the farmer. Greenhouse gas emission for identified waste management practices across the two Districts shall be determined in our next study.

Major Causes of Calf Morbidity and Mortality in Smallholder Dairy Farms in Shashemene Town,Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the major causes of calf morbidity and mortality in smallholder dairy farms and associated potential risk factors in Shashemene.A total of 187 calves from 46 farms were included in the present study.The overall crude morbidity and crude mortality rates were 27.8%and 6.4%,respectively.The most frequent by pneumonia 8(4.3%),Gastrointestinal tract(GIT)disorder 8(4.3%)and septicemia 5(2.7%).In addition skin lesion,navel ill and unidentified cases were encountered.The main causes of death were diarrhea 6(3.2%),Septicemia 2(1.1%),GIT disorder 2(1.1%),pneumonia 1(0.5%)and others 1(0.5%).The most important risk factors associated with morbidity and mortality were housing hygiene,floor condition and calf size in farm.Out of 187 calves examined for GIT parasites;63(33.3%)were positive for nematode eggs.Prevalence of helminthes parasite increased with increasing age,showing higher prevalence(P<0.05)in calves above 2 months than in calves below 2 months of age.Besides,majority of the calves,48(25.7%)were found positive for coccidian oocyst.In general;diarrhea,pneumonia and septicemia were the major causes of calf morbidity and mortality.Interms of risk factors housing hygiene,floor condition,calf size in the farms,age and breed were identified major role players.Therefore,identifying major causes and improving management practices and breed should be given to emphasis by advisory of smallholder dairy farms.

Effect of Social Capital on Performance of Smallholder Farmer Organizations in Western Kenya

Development literature has recently promoted the use of producer organizations in linking farmers to better-paying commodity markets. However, empirical studies find mixed performance of such organizations. This study examines the producer organizations＇ internal factors that may explain the differences in the performance of producer organizations. The study specifically analyzes the role of social capital, within a producer organization, on the performance of such organization using quantitative techniques. The level of commercialization is used as proxy of organization＇s performance. The study finds that social capital positively affects the performance of producer organizations. These findings imply that development strategies that target the promotion commercialization of smallholder agriculture through producer organizations should pay attention to the internal factors within such organizations.