Anisotropic creep behavior of soft-hard interbedded rock masses based on 3D printing and digital imaging correlation technology

Three-dimensional(3D)printing technology is increasingly used in experimental research of geotechnical engineering.Compared to other materials,3D layer-by-layer printing specimens are extremely similar to the inherent properties of natural layered rock masses.In this paper,soft-hard interbedded rock masses with different dip angles were prepared based on 3D printing(3DP)sand core technology.Uniaxial compression creep tests were conducted to investigate its anisotropic creep behavior based on digital imaging correlation(DIC)technology.The results show that the anisotropic creep behavior of the 3DP soft-hard interbedded rock mass is mainly affected by the dip angles of the weak interlayer when the stress is at low levels.As the stress level increases,the effect of creep stress on its creep anisotropy increases significantly,and the dip angle is no longer the main factor.The minimum value of the long-term strength and creep failure strength always appears in the weak interlayer within 30°–60°,which explains why the failure of the layered rock mass is controlled by the weak interlayer and generally emerges at 45°.The tests results are verified by comparing with theoretical and other published studies.The feasibility of the 3DP soft-hard interbedded rock mass provides broad prospects and application values for 3DP technology in future experimental research.

Integrated simulation and monitoring to analyze failure mechanism of the anti-dip layered slope with soft and hard rock interbedding

The significant difference between the mechanical properties of soft rock and hard rock results in the complexity of the failure mode of the anti-dip layered slope with soft and hard rock interbedding.In order to reveal the landslide mechanism,taking the north slope of Fushun West Open-pit Mine as an example,this paper analyzed the failure mechanism of different landslides with monitoring and field surveys,and simulated the evolution of landslides.The study indicated that when the green mudstone(hard rock)of the anti-dip slope contains siltized intercalations(soft rock),the existence of weak layers not only aggravates the toppling deformation of anti-dip layered slope with high dip,but also causes the shear failure of anti-dip layered slope with stable low dip.The shear failure including subsidence induced sliding and wedge failure mainly exists in the unloading zone of the slope.Its failure depth and failure time were far less than that of toppling failure.In terms of the development characteristics of deformation,toppling deformation has the long-term and progressive characteristics,but shear failure deformation has the abrupt and transient characteristics.This study has deepened the understanding of such slope landslide mechanism,and can provide reference for similar engineering.

Modification of rock mass rating system:Interbedding of strong and weak rock layers

Rock mass classification systems are the very important part for underground projects and rock mass rating(RMR) is one of the most commonly applied classification systems in numerous civil and mining projects. The type of rock mass consisting of an interbedding of strong and weak layers poses difficulties and uncertainties for determining the RMR. For this, the present paper uses the concept of rock bolt supporting factor(RSF) for modification of RMR system to be used in such rock mass types. The proposed method also demonstrates the importance of rock bolting practice in such rock masses. The geological parameters of the Shemshak Formation of the Alborz Tunnel in Iran are used as case examples for development of the theoretical approach.

Mechanism of subsidence-buckling and instability of slopes in thick-layered rigid rock under mining

The deformation and failure of mining slopes in layered rocks predominantly result from shear landslides.However,the instability process of the Pusa rock avalanche in Guizhou,China,revealed a unique damage phenomenon:prominent breaking and toppling of rock blocks occurred in the central section of the mountain,with a lack of commonly observed shear landslide features.This paper aims to investigate the underlying reasons behind this distinctive damage pattern.The study employs various methods including geological survey,UAV aerial survey,physical simulation,and discrete element numerical simulation.The findings indicate that the geological conditions,characterized by a hard upper layer and a soft lower layer along with underground mining activities,play a significant role in triggering the landslide.Furthermore,the presence of a columnar structured rock mass emerges as the primary factor influencing the instability of the Pusa rock avalanche.To elucidate the mining failure mechanism of the rock mass with vertical joints,we propose a"subsidence-buckling"failure model.Following the subsidence and collapse of the roof rock mass in the goaf,the columnar rock mass in the upper and middle portions of the slope undergoes deflection and deformation,forming a three-hinged arch structure.This structural configuration converts the pressure exerted by the overlying rock mass into both vertical pressure and lateral thrust.Under the influence of external loads,the slope experiences buckling failure,ultimately leading to instability upon fragmentation.By shedding light on these findings,this study contributes to a better understanding of the spatiotemporal evolution of mining slope fractures and their impact on slope stability.

Theoretical study on stability evolution of soft and hard interbedded bedding reservoir slopes

Soft and hard interbedded bedding rock slopes,which is prone to failure,are widely distributed in the Three Gorges Reservoir,China.Limit equilibrium method(LEM)is commonly used to analyze the stability of bedding rock slopes that have a single failure plane.However,this method cannot accurately estimate the stability of soft and hard interbedded bedding reservoir slopes because the strength parameters of a soft and hard interbedded rock mass vary spatially along the bedding plane and deteriorate with time due to periodic fluctuations of reservoir level.A modified LEM is proposed to evaluate the stability evolution of soft and hard interbedded bedding reservoir slopes considering the spatial variation and temporal deterioration of shear strength parameters of rock masses and bedding planes.In the modified LEM,the S-curve model is used to define the spatial variation of shear strength parameters,and general deterioration equations of shear strength parameters with the increasing number of wettingdrying cycles(WDC)are proposed to describe the temporal deterioration.Also,this method is applied to evaluate the stability evolution of a soft and hard interbedded bedding reservoir slope,located at the Three Gorges Reservoir.The results show that neglecting the spatial variation and temporal deterioration of shear strength parameters may overestimate slope stability.Finally,the modified LEM provides useful guidance to reasonably evaluate the long-term stability of soft and hard interbedded bedding reservoir slopes in reservoir area.

Acoustic-electrical properties and rock physics models for shale-oil formations:prediction of reservoir properties of interbedded sandstone and shale layers

In recent years,the Yanchang shale-oil formations of the Ordos Basin are rich in reserves with complex lithology and structure characteristics,low porosity and low permeability,and weak anomalies for oil and water discriminations,have been the key targets of unconventional oil/gas resource exploration and development in the relevant areas.The joint acoustic-electrical(AE)properties can be used to interpret reservoir lithology,mineralogy,pore structure,and fluid saturation.To conduct tests of thin section analysis,X-ray diff raction,and ultrasonic and electrical experiments at diff erent pressures and saturation degrees,cores from the shale-oil formations in the Q area of the basin are collected.The variations in AE properties with respect to clay content,porosity,pressure(microfracture),and saturation are analyzed.The experimental results indicate that the rock physics behaviors of sandstones with diff erent clay contents vary significantly.The AE properties of clean sandstones are basically dependent on the microfractures(pressure),while for muddy sandstones,the clay content is an important factor affecting the responses.The target reservoir consists of interbedded sandstone and shale layers.The AE equivalent medium equations and the Gurevich theory are applied to establish the joint models for the diff erent lithologies and simulate the variations in AE properties with respect to fluid type,pore structure,and mineral components.The three-dimensional joint templates of clean and muddy sandstones,as well as shale,are developed based on the elastic and electrical attributes and then calibrated using the experimental and well-log data.The reservoir properties are estimated with the templates and validated by the log data.The results indicate that the joint templates based on lithology characteristics can eff ectively characterize the properties of interbedded sandstone and shale layers.Furthermore,the combined application of AE data provides more beneficial information for the assessment of rock properties,leading to precise estimates that conform with the actual formation conditions.

Stability of High Slope Interbedded Strata with Low Dip Angle Constituted by Soft and Hard Rock Mass

Slopes consisting of interbedded strata of soft and hard rock mass, such as purplish red mudstone and grey brown arkosic sandstone of Jurassic age, are very common in Sichuan basin of China. The mudstone is soft while the sandstone is hard and contains many opening or closing joints with a high dip angle. Some are nearly parallel and the others are nearly decussated with the trend of the slopes. Many natural slopes are in deformation or sliding because of those reasons. The stability of cutting slopes and supporting method to be taken for their stability in civil engineering are important. In this paper, the stability and deformation of the slopes are studied. The methods of analysis and support design principle are analyzed also. Finally, the method put forward is applied to study Fengdian high cutting slope in Sichuan section of the express way from Chengdu to Shanghai. The results indicate that the method is effective.

软-硬互层岩体节理峰前循环剪切疲劳损伤机理研究

三峡库区频发微小地震下岩体节理循环剪切疲劳损伤对边坡动力稳定性具有重要影响。通过室内峰前循环剪切试验和PFC2D细观数值计算,研究了考虑一阶起伏角、含水率、剪切速率、剪切幅度、法向应力及循环剪切次数影响的软-硬互层岩体节理宏细观疲劳损伤机理。研究表明:①岩体节理剪切应力-剪切位移曲线历经初始非线性压剪变形、近似线弹性压剪变形、循环剪切疲劳损伤变形、应力缓升压剪变形、应力陡升压剪变形及应力脆性跌落压剪变形六个演化阶段。②岩体节理峰值(残余)剪切强度和疲劳剪切(法向)位移在相同一阶起伏角、含水率、剪切速率、剪切幅度或法向应力下随循环剪切次增多而分别降低和增大;且其在相同循环剪切次数下随一阶起伏角或法向应力变大而分别增大和降低,而随含水率、剪切速率或剪切幅度变大则分别降低和增大。③宏细观结果总体上吻合较好,且岩体节理细观剪切疲劳损伤裂纹数量随剪切位移变化呈前期微增-陡增、中期缓增及后期陡增-缓增-陡增的发展特征,而其随循环剪切次数变化则呈前期陡增和后期缓增的发展特征。④岩体节理宏细观剪切疲劳损伤典型演化过程可概述为压密-起裂破坏、循环错动-贯通破坏及分离-啃断破坏3个渐进性发展阶段,且宏细观剪切疲劳损伤裂纹近似呈“倒U形”密集分布于岩体节理附近。

软硬互层岩体对输水隧洞围岩稳定性的影响研究

软硬互层岩体是水工隧洞施工中经常遇到的地质环境,其对围岩安全稳定性的影响研究具有重要的理论意义和工程价值。以具体工程为依托,利用数值模拟的方式探讨软硬互层岩体的层厚比和岩层厚度对围岩应力、位移和塑性区特征的显著影响,获得相应的变化规律,可为理论研究和工程施工设计提供必要的支撑和借鉴。围岩的最大压应力和塑性区出现在拱腰部位,建议在施工中加强该部位的应力和变形监测。

Insights into the Tectonic Fractures in the Yanchang Formation Interbedded Sandstone-Mudstone of the Ordos Basin Based on Core Data and Geomechanical Models

The distribution and intensity of tectonic fractures within geologic units are important to hydrocarbon exploration and development. Taken the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation interbedded sandstone-mudstone in the Ordos Basin as an example, this study used the finite element method（FEM） based on geomechanical models to study the development of tectonic fractures. The results show that the sandstones tend to generate tectonic fractures more easily than mudstones with the same layer thickness, and the highest degree of tectonic fractures will be developed when the sandstone-mudstone thickness ratio is about 5.0. A possible explanation is proposed for the tectonic fracture development based on two important factors of rock brittleness and mechanical layer thickness. Generally, larger rock brittleness and thinner layer thickness will generate more tectonic fractures. In interbedded sandstone-mudstone formations, the rock brittleness increases with the increasing mechanical layer thickness, hence, these two factors will achieve a balance for the development of tectonic fractures when the sandstone-mudstone thickness ratio reaches a specific value, and the development degree of tectonic fractures is the highest at this value.

Groundwater monitoring of an open-pit limestone quarry:Water-rock interaction and mixing estimation within the rock layers by geochemical and statistical analyses

Water-rock interaction and groundwater mixing are important phenomena in understanding hydrogeological systems and the stability of rock slopes especially those consisting largely of moderately watersoluble minerals like calcite. In this study, the hydrogeological and geochemical evolutions of groundwater in a limestone quarry composed of three strata: limestone layer(covering), interbedded layer under the covering layer, and slaty greenstone layer(basement) were investigated. Water-rock interaction in the open-pit limestone quarry was evaluated using PHREEQC, while hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) were used to classify and identify water sources responsible for possible groundwater mixing within rock layers. In addition, Geochemist's Workbench was applied to estimate the mixing fractions to clarify sensitive zones that may affect rock slope stability. The results showed that the changes in Ca2+and HCO3àconcentrations of several groundwater samples along the interbedded layer could be attributed to mixing groundwater from the limestone layer and that from slaty greenstone layer. Based on the HCA and PCA results, groundwaters were classified into several types depending on their origin:(1) groundwater from the limestone layer(LO),(2) mixed groundwater flowing along the interbedded layer(e.g., groundwater samples L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4), and(3) groundwater originating from the slaty greenstone layer(SO). The mixing fractions of 41% LO: 59% SO, 64% LO: 36% SO, 43%LO: 57% SOand 25% LO: 75% SOon the normal days corresponded to groundwaters L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4,respectively, while the mixing fractions of groundwaters L-7 and L-11(61% LO: 39% SOand 93% LO: 7% SO,respectively) on rainy days became the majority of groundwater originating from the limestone layer.These indicate that groundwater along the interbedded layer significantly affected the stability of rock slopes by enlarging multi-breaking zones in the layer through calcite dissolution and inducing high water pressure, tension cracks and potential sliding plane along this layer particularly during intense rainfall episodes.

Multiple-stacked Hybrid Plays of lacustrine source rock intervals：Case studies from lacustrine basins in China

Hydrocarbon-producing lacustrine basins are widely developed in the world, and China has a large number of lacustrine basins that have developed since the early Permian. The organic-rich shale-dominated heterogeneous source rock intervals in Chinese lacustrine basins generally contain frequent thin interbeds of stratigraphically associated sandstone, siltstone, marl, dolomite, and limestone. The concept of ‘‘Hybrid Plays＇ ＇ as put forth in this article recognizes this pattern of alternating organicrich shale and organic-lean interbeds and existence of mixed unconventional and conventional plays. Hybrid Plays in lacustrine source rock intervals present a unique closed petroleum system hosting continuous hydrocarbons.The interbedded organic-lean siliciclastic and/or carbonateplays are efficiently charged with hydrocarbons via short migration pathways from the adjacent organic-rich shale that is often also a self-sourced play. We assert ‘‘Hybrid Plays＇ ＇ provide the most realistic exploration model for targeting multiple-stacked and genetically related very tight shale, tight and conventional plays together in the entire source rock interval rather than individual plays only. The Hybrid Play model has been proven and works for a wide variety of lacustrine rift, sag and foreland basins in China.

Hydraulic fracture geometry and proppant distribution in thin interbedded shale oil reservoirs

Small-scale true triaxial sand fracturing experiments are conducted on thin interbedded shale samples made from cores of Permian Lucaogou Formation shale oil reservoir in Jimsar sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. Combined with high-precision CT scanning digital core model reconstruction technology, hydraulic fracture geometry and proppant distribution in thin interbedded shale oil reservoirs are studied. The research shows that: In thin interbedded shale oil reservoir, the interlayer difference of rock mechanics and the interlayer interface near the wellbore cannot restrain the growth of fracture height effectively, but has a significant impact on the fracture width distribution in the fracture height direction. Hydraulic fractures in these reservoirs tend to penetrate into the adjacent layer in “step-like” form, but have a smaller width at the interface deflection, which hinders the transport of proppant in vertical direction, resulting in a poor effect of layer-crossing growth. In shale layers with dense laminae, hydraulic fractures tend to form “丰” or “井” shapes. If the perforated interval is large in rock strength and high in breakdown pressure, the main fracture is fully developed initially, large in width, and supported by enough sand. In contrast, if the perforated interval is low in strength and rich in laminae, the fracturing fluid filtration loss is large, the breakdown pressure is low, the main fracture will not open wide initially, and likely to have sand plugging. Proppant is mainly concentrated in the main hydraulic fractures with large width near the perforated layer, activated laminae, branch fractures and fractures in adjacent layers contain only a small amount of(or zero) proppant. The proppant is placed in a limited range on the whole. The limit width of fracture that proppant can enter is about 2.7 times the proppant particle size.

不同加载速率下软硬互层类岩石力学及声发射特性

基于三峡库区砂泥岩互层岩体实测数据,制作软硬互层类岩石试样,在单轴压缩条件下,探究不同静态加载速率对不同厚度比、不同岩层组合方式岩样的力学及声发射特性的影响.研究结果表明:加载速率和硬软岩体积比是影响峰值强度的主要因素,而加载速率和硬软岩岩层厚度比是影响最终破坏特征的主要因素.一方面,随着加载速率的增大,软硬互层类岩石峰值强度先减小后增大;硬岩占比与岩样抗压强度呈正相关;另一方面,低加载速率下岩样最终破坏模式为材料充分破坏,较高加载速率下岩样最终形成1~2条贯穿软硬岩层的主破裂面;软岩体积占比越少,软岩受到的破坏程度越剧烈;此外,可以把AF值突增、b值骤降作为软硬互层岩体大面积破坏的预警信号.

冲击荷载作用下软硬互层类岩石力学特性

基于三峡库区砂泥岩互层岩体的实测数据,采用相似材料以分层浇筑的方法制作软硬互层类岩石试样,利用分离式霍普金森压杆(SHPB)试验系统,探究不同冲击速度下,不同厚度比和岩层组合方式岩样的应力波传播特性、力学性能、能量耗散特征及分形特征。研究结果表明:受波阻抗匹配效果影响,透射波率随着硬岩体积占比增大而增大;透射波率越大的岩样,其破碎时的耗散能密度越大;随着冲击速度增大,各岩样透射波率先增大后减小,动态抗压强度呈近线性增长的规律,其破坏程度逐渐加剧;在冲击荷载作用下,强度较大的类砂岩在层间面力作用下易产生沿加载方向的张拉破坏,而强度较小的类泥岩易产生与沿加载方向呈一定倾角的剪切破坏;互层岩石软岩体积占比越大,其碎块分形维数随耗散能密度增加而增加的趋势越缓。对于互层岩体的破岩施工,应选在软岩体积占比多、硬岩在外表层且交界面数量少的位置,并根据软硬岩占比情况,应该选择合适的炸药量或掘进速度,以达到更好的破岩效果。

基于互层岩体的非定常黏弹塑性蠕变模型及有限元分析

为研究互层岩体在考虑时效变形作用时的蠕变特性,提出了一种考虑应力、应变阈值的非定常黏弹塑性五元件模型。该模型能够同时描述岩体的瞬时弹性应变、黏弹性蠕变、线性黏塑性蠕变和非线性黏塑性蠕变(加速蠕变),推导得出了其在三维应力状态下的蠕变方程;基于ABAQUS有限元软件完成了UMAT子程序的研发,并通过对比岩体的室内蠕变试验与该模型数值模拟结果来验证模型的适用性。结果表明:蠕变试验结果与数值计算结果相吻合,非定常黏弹塑性模型不仅可以精确描述减速蠕变和稳态蠕变过程,还可以较好地描述岩体的加速蠕变过程,从而验证了该模型的适用性与有效性。

动力荷载下软硬互层岩体力学特征

针对动力荷载下软硬互层岩体破坏问题,以汶川水磨沟滑坡层状岩体为研究对象,依据相似理论,制作软硬互层岩质试块,开展单轴压缩及变上下限等幅值循环荷载试验,研究其动力特性及破坏过程。结果表明:随岩层倾角的增大,其破坏模式为贯通层面的张拉破坏(0°~30°)、沿层面的剪切破坏(45°~75°)及沿层面的劈裂破坏(90°),而试样的强度及应变先增后减。对于相同倾角的试样,强度随加载频率及围压增大而增大。应变随加载频率增大而减小,随围压增大而增大。加载频率的增大会导致竖向拉张裂缝贯通、破裂程度降低。

基于压电陶瓷和DIC的软硬互层岩石内外损伤试验及模型研究

为探究软硬互层岩石在破坏后的损伤演化规律,利用相似模型理论制作3组类岩石试块(软岩、互层岩石、硬岩),在对类岩石试块进行单轴压缩的同时辅以压电陶瓷试验和数字图像相关技术(digital image correlation,以下简称DIC)来实时检测岩石的内外损伤,分析其破坏状态和损伤演化规律。试验结果表明:软硬互层岩石的强度、变形特性介于类软岩、类硬岩之间,在达到峰值点前其力学规律类似于软岩有一定的膨胀变形,而在破坏后其力学特性为接近硬岩的脆性破坏;将压电陶瓷时域信号和DIC应变图像与岩石从加载至破坏的过程相结合,发现各类岩石呈现初始平缓、中期加速、末期减缓的“S”形损伤演化规律;压电陶瓷时域信号的衰减幅度与岩石损伤中前期过程正相关,而DIC图像应变变化特征与岩石损伤中后期过程关联密切;软硬互层岩石损伤中前期过程主要是软岩部分的变形及硬岩部分少量的裂纹发育导致的损伤累积变化,而后期则主要是硬岩部分微裂纹相互连接贯通导致的损伤累积,最终表现为软岩部分的粉碎、硬岩部分呈现明显的贯通裂纹。结合压电陶瓷与DIC技术的损伤监测特点,基于尖点突变理论量化岩石损伤曲线中的突变区间和突变交点,以突变交点为岩石内外损伤的分段点,提出内外损伤结合的岩石本构模型。

不同围压和倾角砂泥岩互层岩样力学特性研究

为研究砂泥岩互层岩样的力学特性,首先通过室内试验获取砂岩和泥岩的力学参数,然后采用PFC^(2d)软件对砂岩和泥岩的微观参数进行标定,进而开展了不同围压和倾角条件下砂泥岩互层试件的三轴压缩数值试验,分析了围压、倾角对砂泥岩互层岩样力学性质和破坏特征的影响规律。结果表明:(1)相同围压下,随着岩层倾角的增加,抗压强度、弹性模量和黏聚力均为先减小后增大的变化趋势,在岩层倾角60°时为最小值,随着围压的增大,轴向应变也相应增大;(2)在试样加载过程中裂纹数量的突变点与应力应变曲线弹性、塑性和破坏特征点相对应,并且拉伸裂纹数量占总裂纹数的比例大于剪切裂纹的占比;(3)在岩层倾角和围压的影响下砂泥岩互层岩样的破坏模式可分为3种,即张剪破坏、顺层理面滑动的剪切滑移破坏、滑移破坏和张剪破坏同时存在的复合破坏。研究结论可为砂泥岩互层岩体相关工程的变形稳定分析提供参考。

互层岩体隧道超欠挖机理及围岩稳定性控制

针对互层岩体隧道钻爆法开挖过程中出现的严重超欠挖问题,依托康定2号隧道,基于Voronoi随机裂隙块体模型和等效爆破荷载时程建立互层岩体隧道爆破计算模型,通过现场超欠挖监测结果验证数值模拟方法的合理性,在此基础上探讨互层倾角对隧道超欠挖的影响规律,最后分析了炮孔周边眼间距优化和增设“预留层”爆破的超欠挖控制效果。结果表明:互层水平时,两侧拱肩超挖严重,顶部出现“门框形”的平顶、离层破坏;互层倾角接近垂直时隧道超挖量较小;隧道拱顶在互层倾角30°时的线性超挖值最大达到0.712 m。现场采用设置“预留层”爆破的优化方案后,最大线性超挖值控制在8 cm以内,满足Ⅴ级围岩光面爆破最大线性超挖值不超过15 cm的要求,且隧道周边位移量减小,围岩无明显变形突变现象。建议对于超欠挖和稳定性要求较高的隧道,采用设置“预留层”爆破的优化方案。