Solar Radiation Estimation Based on a New Combined Approach of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Genetic Algorithms (GA) in South Algeria

When designing solar systems and assessing the effectiveness of their many uses,estimating sun irradiance is a crucial first step.This study examined three approaches(ANN,GA-ANN,and ANFIS)for estimating daily global solar radiation(GSR)in the south of Algeria:Adrar,Ouargla,and Bechar.The proposed hybrid GA-ANN model,based on genetic algorithm-based optimization,was developed to improve the ANN model.The GA-ANN and ANFIS models performed better than the standalone ANN-based model,with GA-ANN being better suited for forecasting in all sites,and it performed the best with the best values in the testing phase of Coefficient of Determination(R=0.9005),Mean Absolute Percentage Error(MAPE=8.40%),and Relative Root Mean Square Error(rRMSE=12.56%).Nevertheless,the ANFIS model outperformed the GA-ANN model in forecasting daily GSR,with the best values of indicators when testing the model being R=0.9374,MAPE=7.78%,and rRMSE=10.54%.Generally,we may conclude that the initial ANN stand-alone model performance when forecasting solar radiation has been improved,and the results obtained after injecting the genetic algorithm into the ANN to optimize its weights were satisfactory.The model can be used to forecast daily GSR in dry climates and other climates and may also be helpful in selecting solar energy system installations and sizes.

Effect of ground cover changes on solar radiation absorption in Three Northeastern Provinces of China

Background,aim,and scope Solar radiation is the main source of energy for terrestrial ecosystems.Small changes in the absorption of solar radiation at the ground surface can have a significant impact on the climatic environment.Natural and anthropogenic changes in ground cover are important factors affecting the absorption of solar radiation at the ground surface.This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in the mid and high latitudes.In order to quantify the inf luence of surface cover change on the absorption of solar radiation at the surface and to provide a scientific basis for changes in the climatic environment,this paper analyzed ground cover change,ground absorbed solar radiation change and the effect of ground cover change on ground absorbed solar radiation in the Three Northeastern Provinces of China from 2001 to 2018.Materials and methods In this study,the Three Northeastern Provinces of China were used as the study area.Firstly,satellite remote sensing data were used to obtain land cover data and albedo data for Aug.1st of each year in 2001,2005,2010,2015 and 2018.The albedo data were further used to calculate the absorbed solar radiation data at the ground surface.Next,the land cover data were used to count the area changes and shifts of different land classes over the five-year period.The land cover data were overlaid with the surface absorbed solar radiation data to obtain the mean and standard deviation of radiation absorption for different ground classes.The surface absorbed solar radiation data were subtracted to obtain the changes in surface absorbed solar radiation for 2001-2005,2005-2010,2010-2015 and 2015-2018.Ultimately,we used a combination of shifted changes in ground classes and changes in surface absorbed solar radiation data,with unchanged ground classes as a baseline and data such as slope orientation as an aid.We analyzed the effect of ground cover change on surface absorbed solar radiation at regional and pixel point scales.Results(1)The area of woodland and waters in the Three Northeastern Provinces of China increased and then decreased from 2001 to 2018,with an overall increase of 3.96%and 10.51%respectively.Cropland decreased and then increased,with a total decrease of 1.22%.Grassland continued to decrease,with an overall decrease of 19.36%.Building sites increased all the time,with a total increase of 11.08%.The main types of ground cover shifted were woodland,cropland and grassland.The main factors for the change in ground cover were China’s woodland protection policy and the saturation of the total woodland stock.(2)The five ground types absorb solar radiation in the order of waters>building sites>woodland>grassland>cropland.The surface absorption of solar radiation in the Songnen Plain,the Sanjiang Plain and the Songhua River Basin flowing through the Songnen Plain and the Sanjiang Plain varies significantly,by more than 25 W·m^(-2).(3)Changes in the ground cover type affected the absorption of solar radiation energy by the ground surface.There was a clear trend of interconversion between waters and cropland/grassland,cropland and woodland/grassland.In particular,the conversion of waters to both cropland and grassland radiation absorption values decreased significantly,while the opposite increased.The absolute difference between waters and cropland was a maximum of -156.66 W·m^(-2)in 2010-2015,and between waters and grassland was a maximum of 102.36 W·m^(-2) in 2005-2010.The radiative absorption values of woodland and grassland reclamation declined and conversely increased.The absolute difference between woodland and cropland was a maximum of-13.94 W·m^(-2) in 2010-2015 when woodland converted to cropland,and between grassland and cropland was a maximum of 22.36 W·m^(-2) in 2001-2005 when cropland converted to grassland,respectively.Discussion Ground cover changes in the Three Northeastern Provinces of China from 2001-2018 were inextricably linked to natural factors and the inf luence of Chinese national policies.The main inf luencing factors were China’s woodland protection policy,restoration of woodland fire sites,saturation of total woodland,optimization of cropland patterns,sanding of grassland,expansion of water conservancy projects,and urbanization expansion.There were differences in the radiation absorption characteristics of different ground cover types.This was due to the nature of the ground type itself and the regional environment.When ground cover types changed,their ability to absorb solar radiation also changed.The degree of change could be inf luenced by different ground types and different environmental factors.Different spatial scales can also produce variability.We need to consider the effects of ground cover change on the absorption of solar radiation at the surface in an integrated and comprehensive way.Conclusions The Three Northeastern Provinces of China had frequent changes in ground cover from 2001-2018,with the area of grassland decreased by almost 20%.These changes were due to natural environmental change and policies issued by China since the 21st century.The extent to which solar radiation was absorbed by different ground cover types was different,with grassland being the strongest and cropland the least.In the past few years,the Songnen Plain and Sanjiang Plain regions were the most significant changes in the absorption of solar radiation by the ground cover.The change in ground cover type led to a change in solar radiation absorption at the ground surface,with the conversion of waters to cropland or grassland and the conversion of cropland to woodland or grassland showing the greatest change in radiation absorption values,and vice versa.Of these,the absolute difference in the conversion of waters to cropland amounts to-156.66 W·m^(-2) in 2010-2015.The variation in the absorption of solar radiation at the ground surface was related to the characteristics of the ground class itself,but was also limited by the regional environment.Recommendations and perspectives This study showed that surface cover change can affect the absorption of solar radiation at the surface to varying degrees.The unchanged land classes were used as a comparative analysis in this paper,and it was clear from the paper that some of the unchanged land classes showed significant changes in radiation absorption that should be of interest in future studies.

Trends in Global Solar Radiation and Sunshine Duration in Past Two Decades in Japan

Global solar radiation (GSR) is an essential physical quantity for agricultural management and designing infrastructures. Because GSR has often been modeled as a function of sunshine duration (SD) and day length for a given set of locations and calendar days, analyzing interannual trends in GSR and SD is important to evaluate, predict or regulate the cycles of energy and water between geosphere and atmosphere. This study aimed to exemplify interannual trends in GSR and SD, which had been recorded from 2001 to 2022 in 40 meteorological stations in Japan, and validate the applicability of an SD-based model to the evaluation of GSR. Both the measured GSR and SD had increased in many of the stations in the study period with averaged rates of 0.252 [W·m−2·y−1] and 0.015 [h·d−1·y−1], respectively. The offset and the slope of the SD-based model were estimated by fitting the model to the measured data sets and were found to have been almost constant with the averages of 0.201[-] and 0.566[-], respectively, indicating that characteristics of the SD-GSR relation had not varied for the 22-year period and that the model and its parameter set can be stationarily applicable to the analyses and predictions of GSR in recent years. The stable trends in both parameters also implied that the upward trend in SD can be a main explanatory factor for that in the measured GSR. The upward trend in SD had coincided with the increase in the frequency of heavy-shortened rains, suggesting that the time period of each rainfall event had gradually decreased, which may be attributable to the obtained upward trend in SD. Further studies are required to clarify if there is some cause-effect relation between the changes in rainfall patterns and the standard level of solar radiation reaching the land surface.

Theoretical and Experimental Quantification of Solar Radiation through a Tracking System

This work deals with the estimation of solar radiation through a solar tracker aimed at evaluating the effect of solar tracking on the solar deposit in Burkina Faso. Using a two-axis solar tracking system, we experimentally measured solar radiation at our Joseph KI-ZERBO University site and compared it with that obtained by a numerical simulation run using Fortran programming software based on a mathematical model by Brichambaut. The results obtained from the mathematical and experimental studies show that, with a solar tracker, on a clear-sky day, solar irradiation is between 800 W·m−2 and 1000 W·m−2 between about 8 a.m. and 4 p.m., i.e. a duration of 8 hours of insolation. Analysis of the numerical and experimental results shows very good quantitative and qualitative agreement, with an average relative error of 18%.

Evaluation on Solar Radiation Resource and Photosynthetic and Thermal Potential Productivity in Shandong Province

To evaluate scientifically the change of photosynthetic and thermal potential productivity caused by climate variation,based on comparison with mean of previous 30 years(1971-2000),the change of total solar radiation,sunshine hours,photosynthetic active radiation,photosynthetic and thermal potential productivity since 2001 were analyzed through data of radiation,sunshine and temperature in Shandong Province from 1971 to 2007,and the change trend was also tested by Mann-Kendall non-parametric statistical met...

Variation Trend of Total Solar Radiation in Nujiang Basin in Recent 30 Years

Based on the data of sunshine duration,cloud cover and relative humidity from 9 stations in 1981-2008,the spatial and temporal distribution and change trend of total solar radiation in river valley basin of Nujiang were analyzed,as well as its impact factors.The results showed that annual solar radiation decreased obviously in Nujiang basin from 1981 to 1997,with the rate of-161.1 MJ/(m2·10 a),while it went up after 1997 at the rate of 111.3 MJ/(m2·10 a).Annual total cloud cover showed significant decrease trend with the rate of 1.8%/10 a,but annual low cloud cover increased at the rate of 3.2%/10 a.Contrary to the change trend of annual solar radiation,relative humidity rose at the increase of 3.1%/10 a from 1981 to 1997 and decreased significantly at the rate of 5.6%/10 a in 1997-2008.The change of water vapor pressure was consistent with relative humility change.Low cloud cover was the main impact factor of total solar radiation and had a negative correlation with total solar radiation.

Sensitivity of the Upper Ocean Temperature and Circulation in the Equatorial Pacific to Solar Radiation Penetration Due to Phytoplankton

Solar radiation penetration in the upper ocean is strongly modulated by phytoplankton, which impacts the upper ocean temperature structure, especially in the regions abundant with phytoplankton. In the paper, a new solar radiation penetration scheme, based on the concentration of chlorophyll-a, was introduced into the LASG/IAP （State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics/Institute of Atmospheric Physics） Climate system Ocean Model （LICOM）. By comparing the simulations using this new scheme with those using the old scheme that included the constant e-folding attenuation depths in LICOM, it was found that the sea surface temperature （SST） and circulation in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific were both sensitive to the amount of phytoplankton present. Distinct from other regions, the increase of chlorophyll-a concentration would lead to SST decrease in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. The higher chlorophyll-a concentration at the equator in comparison to the off-equator regions can enlarge the subsurface temperature gradient, which in turn strengthens the upper current near the equator and induces an enhancing upwelling. The enhancing upwelling can then lead to a decrease in the SST in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. The results of these two sensitive experiments testify to the fact that the meridional gradient in the chlorophyll-a concentration can result in an enhancement in the upper current and a decrease in the SST, along with the observation that a high chlorophyll-a concentration at the equator is one of the predominant reasons leading to a decrease in the SST. This study points out that these results can be qualitatively different simply because of the choice of the solar radiation penetration schemes for comparison. This can help explain previously reported contradictory conclusions.

Characteristics of Surface Solar Radiation under Different Air Pollution Conditions over Nanjing, China: Observation and Simulation

Surface solar radiation (SSR) can affect climate, the hydrological cycle, plant photosynthesis, and solar power. The values of solar radiation at the surface reflect the influence of human activity on radiative climate and environmental effects, so it is a key parameter in the evaluation of climate change and air pollution due to anthropogenic disturbances. This study presents the characteristics of the SSR variation in Nanjing, China, from March 2016 to June 2017, using a combined set of pyranometer and pyrheliometer observations. The SSR seasonal variation and statistical properties are investigated and characterized under different air pollution levels and visibilities. We discuss seasonal variations in visibility, air quality index (AQI), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), and their correlations with SSR. The scattering of solar radiation by particulate matter varies significantly with particle size. Compared with the particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 μm and 10 μm (PM2.5-10), we found that the PM2.5 dominates the variation of scattered radiation due to the differences of single-scattering albedo and phase function. Because of the correlation between PM2.5 and SSR, it is an effective and direct method to estimate PM2.5 by the value of SSR, or vice versa to obtain the SSR by the value of PM2.5. Under clear-sky conditions (clearness index ≥0.5), the visibility is negatively correlated with the diffuse fraction, AQI, PM10, and PM2.5, and their correlation coefficients are ?0.50,?0.60,?0.76, and ?0.92, respectively. The results indicate the linkage between scattered radiation and air quality through the value of visibility.

Surface Heat Budget and Solar Radiation Allocation at a Melt Pond During Summer in the Central Arctic Ocean

The heat budget of a melt pond surface and the solar radiation allocation at the melt pond are studied using the 2010 Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition data collected in the central Arctic. Temperature at a melt pond surface is proportional to the air temperature above it. However, the linear relationship between the two varies, depending on whether the air temperature is higher or lower than 0℃. The melt pond surface temperature is strongly influenced by the air temperature when the latter is lower than 0℃. Both net longwave radiation and turbulent heat flux can cause energy loss in a melt pond, but the loss by the latter is larger than that by the former. The turbulent heat flux is more than twice the net longwave radiation when the air temperature is lower than 0℃. More than 50% of the radiation energy entering the pond surface is absorbed by pond water. Very thin ice sheet on the pond surface(black ice) appears when the air temperature is lower than 0℃; on the other hand, only a small percentage(5.5%) of net longwave in the solar radiation is absorbed by such a thin ice sheet.

Change of the solar radiation and its causes in the Haihe River Basin and surrounding areas

Solar radiation is an important driving force for the formation and evolution of climate system. Analysis of change in solar radiation is helpful in understanding mechanism of climate change. In this study, the temporal and spatial variations of solar radiation and the cause of the change in solar radiation have been analyzed based on meteorological data from 46 national meteorological stations and aerosol index data from TOMS over the Haihe River Basin and surrounding areas. The results have shown that solar radiation and direct radiation significantly decreased, while scattered radiation increased during the period 1957-2008. Spatially, the decreasing trend of solar radiation was more and more significant from low population density areas to high population density areas. The spatial distribution of increase in aerosol index is consistent with that of decrease in solar radiation. The increase in aerosols resulting from human activities was an important reason for the decrease in solar radiation.

Change in Surface Microstructure and Properties of PTFE after Solar Radiation and its Mechanism

A series of solar radiation tests for the polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) bulk and film samples were carried out using Q-SUN XE-3-HSC type Solar Radiation Simulator, with the test parameters as follows: radiation intensity is 1 120 W/m^2, temperature is 55 ℃ and humidity is 70% RH. Surface morphology, composition and microstructure of the PTFE samples before and after radiation tests were characterized contrastively. Effect of solar radiation on the tribology and wetting properties of PTFE were also studied by tribometer and contact angle tester, respectively. The results show that, for radiated PTFE, surface roughness, the relative content of C element, the friction coefficients and the contact angle with water increased in varying degrees. In conclusion, the obvious change in PTFE samples can be mainly attributed to break of(CFx)-C bonds after bombardment of high energy UV photons, which causes the loss of F-rich groups, oxidation, crosslinking and restructuring of active unsaturated groups.

Effects of temperature and solar radiation on yield of good eating-quality rice in the lower reaches of the Huai River Basin,China

We studied the effects of temperature and solar radiation on rice yield with the aim of understanding the temperature and solar radiation requirements for high yield rice production in the lower reaches of the Huai River,China.Field experiments were conducted with two medium-maturing japonica rice(MMJR)varieties and four late-maturing japonica rice(LMJR)varieties in 2017 and 2018.Seeds were sown on May 10(T1),May 17(T2),May 24(T3),May 31(T4),June 7(T5),June 14(T6),and June 21(T7).The whole growth duration(WGD)of rice was shortened when sowing date was delayed,especially for the duration from sowing to heading(S–H).The effective accumulated temperature(EAT),mean daily temperature(Tmean),cumulative solar radiation(CSR),and mean daily solar radiation(Rmean)over the WGD decreased when sowing date was delayed.Compared with T1,yields in T2,T3,T4,T5,T6,and T7 decreased by 0.12–0.35,0.45–0.89,0.74–1.56,1.41–2.24,2.16–2.90,and 2.69–3.64 t ha^(-1),respectively.There was a significant positive correlation between rice yield and EAT in different growth stages.Temperature was the main factor that affected the yield of good eating-quality rice in the lower reaches of the Huai River.We found that a relatively high yield can be obtained when the optimal Tmean for medium-maturing japonica rice(MMJR)and late-maturing japonica rice(LMJR)was 25.8–27.0℃and 26.6–27.1℃in the stages from sowing to heading(S–H),and 20.3–23.3℃and 20.3–22.1℃in the stages from heading to maturity(H–M),respectively.The optimal sowing dates for MMJR and LMJR in the lower reaches of the Huai River were May 15–31 and May 15–18,respectively.

Change in internal energy of thermal diffusion stagnation point Maxwell nanofluid flow along with solar radiation and thermal conductivity

This paper concerns the characteristics of heat and mass transfer in upper convected Maxwell fluid flow over a linear stretching sheet with solar radiation,viscous desperation and temperature based viscosity.After boundary layer approximation,the governing equations are achieved(namely Maxwell,upper convected material derivative,thermal and concentration diffusions).By using the self-similarity transformations the governing PDEs are converted into nonlinear ODEs and solved by RK-4 method in combination with Newton Raphson(shooting technique).The effects of developed parameters on velocity,temperature,concentration,fraction factor,heat and mass diffusions are exemplified through graphs and tabular form and are deliberated in detail.Numerical values of fraction factor,heat and mass transfer rates with several parameters are computed and examined.It is noticed that the temperature is more impactable for higher values of radiative heat transport,thermal conductivity and viscous dissipation.The comparison data for some limiting case are acquired and are originated to be in good agreement with previously published articles.

Estimation of Hourly and Daily Global Solar Radiation at Clear Days Using an Approach Based on Modified Version of Gaussian Distribution

The performance of two models,Jam and Baig,based on the modified version of Gaussian distribution function in estimating the daily total of global solar radiation and its distribution through the hours of the day from sunrise to sunset al any clear day is evaluated with our own measured data in the period from June 1992 to May 1993 in Qena Egypt The results show a high relative deviation of calculated values from measured ones,especially for Jain model,in the most hours of the day,except for those near to local noon.This misfit behavior is quite obvious in the early morning and late afternoon A new approach has been proposed in this paper to estimate the daily and hourly global solar radiation This model performs with very high accuracy on the recorded data in our region.The validity of this approach was verified with new measurements in some clear days in June and August 1994.The resultant very low relative deviation of the calculated values of global solar radiation from the measured ones confirms the high performance of the approach proposed in this work

Numerical Simulation of Sensitivities of Snow Melting to Spectral Composition of the Incoming Solar Radiation

Snow albedo is an important factor influencing the snow surface energy budget and snow melting, yet uncertainties remain in the calculation of spectrally resolved snow surface albedo because the spectral composition （visible versus near infrared） of the incident solar radiation is seldom available. The influence of the spectral composition of the incoming solar radiation on the snow surface albedo, snow surface energy budget, and final snow ablation is investigated through sensitivity experiments of four snow seasons at two open sites in the Alps by using a multi-layer Snow-Atmosphere-Soil-Transfer scheme （SAST）. Since the snow albedo in the near infrared （NIR） spectral band is significantly lower than that in the visible （VIS） band, and almost the entire NIR part of the solar radiation is absorbed in the top layer of the snow pack, given a fixed amount of incoming solar radiation, a lower VIS/NIR ratio implies that more NIR radiation is reaching the ground surface and more is absorbed by the top layer of the snow pack, therefore, speeding up the snow melting and increasing the surface runoff, although a lesser part of the solar radiation in the visible band is transmitted into and trapped by the sub-layer of the snow pack. The above VIS/NIR ratio effect of the incoming solar radiation can result in a couple of days difference in the timing of snow ablation and it becomes more significant in late spring when the total solar radiation is intensified with seasonal evolution. Snow aging also slightly intensifies this VIS/NIR ratio effect.

Deriving the slope-mean shielded astronomical solar radiation spectrum and slope-mean possible sunshine duration spectrum over the Loess Plateau

Solar radiation is often shielded by terrain relief, especially in mountainous areas, before reaching the surface of the Earth. The objective of this paper is to study the spatial structures of the shielded astronomical solar radiation(SASR) and the possible sunshine duration(PSD) over the Loess Plateau. To this end, we chose six test areas representing different landforms over the Loess Plateau and the software package of Matlab was used as the main computing platform. In each test area, 5-m-resolution digital elevation model established from 1:10,000 scale topographic maps was used to compute the corresponding slope, SASR and PSD. Then, we defined the concepts of the slope-mean SASR spectrum and the slope-mean PSD spectrum, and proposed a method to extract them from the computed slope, SASR and PSD over rectangular analysis windows. Using this method, we found both spectrums in a year or in a season for each of the four seasons in the six test areas. Each spectrum was found only when the area of the corresponding rectangular analysis window was greater than the corresponding stable area of the spectrum. The values of the two spectrums decreased when the slope increased.Furthermore, the values of the stable areas of the spectrums in a year or in a season were positively correlated with the variable coefficients of the slope or the profile curvature. The values of the stable areas of the two spectrums in a year or in a season may represent the minimum value of test areas for corresponding future research on the spatial structures of the SASR or PSD. All the findings herein suggest that the spatial structures of the PSD and the SASR are caused by the interactions between solar radiation and terrain relief and that the method for extracting either spectrum is effective for detecting their spatial structures. This study may deepen our understanding of the spatial structure of solar radiation and help us further explore the distribution of solar energy in mountainous regions.

Distributed modeling of direct solar radiation on rugged terrain of the Yellow River Basin

Due to the influences of local topographical factors and terrain inter-shielding, calculation of direct solar radiation （DSR） quantity of rugged terrain is very complex. Based on digital elevation model （DEM） data and meteorological observations, a distributed model for calculating DSR over rugged terrain is developed. This model gives an all-sided consideration on factors influencing th a resolution of 1 km × 1 km for thDSR. Using the developed model, normals of annual DSR quantity wie Yellow River Basin was generated, with DEM data as the general characterization of terrain. Characteristics of DSR quantity influenced by geographic and topographic factors over rugged terrain were analyzed thoroughly. Results suggest that： influenced by local topographic factors, i.e. azimuth, slope and so on, and annual DSR quantity over mountainous area has a clear spatial difference; annual DSR quantity of sunny slope （or southern slope） of mountains is obviously larger than that of shady slope （or northern slope）. The calculated DSR quantity of the Yellow River Basin is provided in the same way as other kinds of spatial information and can be employed as basic geographic data for relevant studies as well.

Solar radiation pressure used for formation flying control around the Sun-Earth libration point

Solar radiation pressure is used to control the formation flying around the L2 libration point in the Sun-Earth system. Formation flying control around a halo orbit requires a very small thrust that cannot be satisfied by the latest thrusters. The key contribution of this paper is that the continuous low thrust is produced by solar radiation pressure to achieve the tight formation flying around the libration point. However, only certain families of formation types can be controlled by solar radiation pressure since the direction of solar radiation pressure is restricted to a certain range. Two types of feasible formations using solar radiation pressure control are designed. The conditions of feasible formations are given analytically. Simulations are presented for each case, and the results show that the formations are well controlled by solar radiation pressure.

Sensitivity of the Warm Core of Tropical Cyclones to Solar Radiation

To investigate the impacts of solar radiation on tropical cyclone （TC） warm-core structure （i.e., the magnitude and height）, a pair of idealized simulations are conducted by specifying different strengths of solar shortwave radiation. It is found that the TC warm core is highly sensitive to the shortwave radiative effect. For the nighttime storm, a tendency for a more intense warm core is found, with an elevated height compared to its daytime counterpart. As pointed out by previous studies, the radiative cooling during nighttime destabilizes the local and large-scale environment and thus promotes deep moist convec- tion, which enhances the TC＇s intensity. Due to the different inertial stabilities, the diabatic heating in the eyewall will force different secondary circulations. For a strong TC with a deeper vertical structure, this promotes a thin upper-level inflow layer. This inflow carries the lower stratospheric air with high potential temperature and descends adiabatically in the eye, resulting in significant upper-level warming. The Sawyer-Eliassen diagnosis further confirms that the height of the maximum temperature anomaly is likely attributable to the balance among the forced secondary circulations.

Solar Radiation Penetrating Through Sea Ice Under Very Low Solar Altitude

Based on the optical data for transmitted radiation through sea ice in the Arctic during the late autumn and early winterof 2007,the authors studied the arriving solar radiation,reflected radiation and transmitted radiation under very low solar altitude.Through the atmosphere,the light of the arriving solar radiation at short wavelength was weakened,with the spectral distribution ofdouble peaks centered at 490 nm and 683 nm.The magnitude of the peak at 683 nm even exceeded that at 490 nm under the very lowsolar radiation condition.The reflection was lower than that in summertime because of the thin thicknesses of ice and snow,allowinghigher ratio of heat to enter the sea ice and snow.When higher ratio of solar radiation entered sea ice in late autumn,the new icefreezing would be affected.The spectral reflectivity from snow surface was almost a constant,but the reflection without snow de-creased at longer wavelengths.In the transmission spectrum,the light of 490 nm was dominant.It indicates that the radiation atlonger wavelength was weakened by sea ice.Therefore,under the condition of low solar altitude,the radiation at shorter wavelengthwas weakened by the atmosphere while the radiation at longer wavelength was weakened by the sea ice.The combined effect of at-mosphere and sea ice made the solar radiation under sea ice much weaker.The absorption of sea ice for the longer-wavelength radiation allowed the sea ice to gain more heat to slow down the freezing process.