A Study of Air/Space-borne Dual-Wavelength Radar for Estimation of Rain Profiles

In this study, a framework is given by which air/space-borne dual-wavelength radar data can be used to estimate the characteristic parameters of hydrometeors. The focus of the study is on the Global Precipitation Measurement （GPM） precipitation radar, a dual-wavelength radar that will operate in the Ku （13.6 GHz） and Ka （35 GHz） bands. A key aspect of the retrievals is the relationship between the differential frequency ratio （DFR） and the median volume diameter, Do, and its dependence on the phase state of the hydrometeors. It is shown that parametric plots of Do and particle concentration in the plane of the DFR and the radar reflectivity factor in the Ku band can be used to reduce the ambiguities in deriving Do from DFR. A self-consistent iterative algorithm, which does not require the use of an independent pathattenuation constraint, is examined by applying it to the apparent radar reflectivity profiles simulated from a drop size distribution （DSD） model. For light to moderate rain, the self-consistent rain profiling approach converges to the correct solution only if the same shape factor of the Gamma distributions is used both to generate and retrieve the rain profiles. On the other hand, if the shape factors differ, the iteration generally converges but not to the correct solution. To further examine the dual-wavelength techniques, the selfconsistent iterative algorithm, along with forward and backward rain profiling algorithms, are applied to measurements taken from the 2nd generation Precipitation Radar （PR-2） built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Consistent with the model results, it is found that the estimated rain profiles are sensitive to the shape factor of the size distribution when the iterative, self-consistent approach is used but relatively insensitive to this parameter when the forward- and backward-constrained approaches are used.

A New Algorithm of Rain Type Classification for GPM Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar in Summer Tibetan Plateau

In this study, a new rain type classification algorithm for the Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar(DPR) suitable over the Tibetan Plateau(TP) was proposed by analyzing Global Precipitation Measurement(GPM) DPR Level-2 data in summer from 2014 to 2020. It was found that the DPR rain type classification algorithm(simply called DPR algorithm) has mis-identification problems in two aspects in summer TP. In the new algorithm of rain type classification in summer TP,four rain types are classified by using new thresholds, such as the maximum reflectivity factor, the difference between the maximum reflectivity factor and the background maximum reflectivity factor, and the echo top height. In the threshold of the maximum reflectivity factors, 30 d BZ and 18 d BZ are both thresholds to separate strong convective precipitation, weak convective precipitation and weak precipitation. The results illustrate obvious differences of radar reflectivity factor and vertical velocity among the three rain types in summer TP, such as the reflectivity factor of most strong convective precipitation distributes from 15 d BZ to near 35 d BZ from 4 km to 13 km, and increases almost linearly with the decrease in height. For most weak convective precipitation, the reflectivity factor distributes from 15 d BZ to 28 d BZ with the height from 4 km to 9 km. For weak precipitation, the reflectivity factor mainly distributes in range of 15–25 d BZ with height within 4–10 km. It is also shows that weak precipitation is the dominant rain type in summer TP, accounting for 40%–80%,followed by weak convective precipitation(25%–40%), and strong convective precipitation has the least proportion(less than 30%).

Study on New Generation Spaceborne Rain and Cloud Measuring Radar System Techniques

Dual-frequency and multi-polarization spaceborne rain and cloud measuring radar is the inevitable trend of remote sensing techniques.Techniques of new generation dual-frequency and multi-polarization spaceborne rain and cloud measuring radar are studied systematically.Radar block diagram and main parameters are presented.Antenna subsystem scheme is analyzed and antenna parameters are proposed.Central electronic device subsystem scheme is given and data rate of spaceborne radar is calculated.This paper is a meaningful try for carrying out spaceborne rain and cloud measuring radar design,acting as a reference to Chinese spaceborne rain and cloud measuring radar design and production in future.

Microphysical Processes of a Stratiform Precipitation Event over Eastern China:Analysis Using Micro Rain Radar data

Data collected using the micro rain radar(MRR) situated in Jinan city, eastern China, were used to explore the altitudinal and temporal evolution of rainfall microphysical characteristics, and to analyze the bright band(BB) characteristics and hydrometeor classification. Specifically, a low-intensity and stable stratiform precipitation event that occurred from 0000 to0550 UTC 15 February 2015 and featured a BB was studied. During this event, the rainfall intensity was less than 2 mm h-1 at a height of 300 m, which was above the radar site level, so the errors caused by the vertical air motion could be ignored.The freezing height from the radiosonde matched well with the top of the BB observed by the MRR. It was also found that the number of 0.5–1 mm diameter drops showed no noticeable variation below the BB. The maximum fall velocity and the maximum gradient fall velocity(GFV) of the raindrops appeared at the bottom of the BB. Meanwhile, a method that uses the GFV and reflectivity to identify the altitude and the thickness of the BB was established, with which the MRR can provide a reliable and real-time estimation of the 0?C isotherm. The droplet fall velocity was used to classify the types of snow crystals above the BB. In the first 20 min of the selected precipitation event, graupel prevailed above the BB; and at an altitude of2000 m, graupel also dominated in the first 250 min. After 150 min, the existence of graupel and dendritic crystals with water droplets above the BB was inferred.

Comparison of the Bright Band Characteristics Measured by Micro Rain Radar (MRR) at a Mountain and a Coastal Site in South Korea

Data from a long term measurement of Micro Rain Radar （MRR） at a mountain site （Daegwallyeong, DG, one year period of 2005） and a coastal site （Haenam, HN, three years 2004-2006） in South Korea were analyzed to compare the MRR measured bright band characteristics of stratiform precipitation at the two sites. On average, the bright band was somewhat thicker and the sharpness （average gradient of reflectivity above and below the reflectivity peak） was slightly weaker at DG, compared to those values at HN. The peak reflectivity itself was twice as strong and the relative location of the peak reflectivity within the bright band was higher at HN than at DG. Importantly, the variability of these values was much larger at HN than at DG. The key parameter to cause these differences is suggested to be the difference of the snow particle densities at the two sites, which is related to the degree of riming. Therefore, it is speculated that the cloud microphysical processes at HN may have varied significantly from un-rimed snow growth, producing low density snow particles, to the riming of higher density particles, while snow particle growth at DG was more consistently affected by the riming process, and therefore high density snow particles. Forced uplifting of cloudy air over the mountain area around DG might have resulted in an orographic supercooling effect that led to the enhanced riming of supercooled cloud drops.

Rainfall Microphysical Properties of Landfalling Typhoon Yagi(201814)Based on the Observations of Micro Rain Radar and Cloud Radar in Shandong,China

The development and evolution of precipitation microphysical parameters and the vertical structure characteristics associated with Typhoon Yagi(201814)are analyzed in the city of Jinan,Shandong Province based primarily on the observations of a micro rain radar(MRR),a cloud radar,and a disdrometer.The precipitation process is further subdivided into four types:convective,stratiform,mixed,and light precipitation according to the ground disdrometer data,which is in agreement with the vertical profile of the radar reflectivity detected by the MRR.Vertical winds may be the main source of MRR retrieval error during convective precipitation.Convective precipitation has the shortest duration but makes the largest contribution to the cumulative precipitation.Collision-coalescence is the main microphysical process of stratiform precipitation and light precipitation below the bright band observed by the MRR.It is worth noting that as Typhoon Yagi(201814)transformed into an extratropical cyclone,its raindrop size distributions no longer had the characteristics of maritime precipitation,but become more typical of the characteristic of continental precipitation,which represents a very different raindrop size distribution from that which is normally observed in a landfalling typhoon.

Runoff Simulation Using Radar and Rain Gauge Data

The conceptual rainfall-runoff model TOPMODEL is used to simulate runoffs of the Meishan and Nianyushan catchments during the summers of 1998 and 1999 in the GAME/HUBEX (GEWEX Asia Monsoon Experiment /HUAIHE River Basin Experiment) project. The rainfall distributions are estimated by weather radar and rain gauge networks according to different methods. Observed and simulated runoffs are compared and analyzed for both catchments. Results show that (1) the runoff of the catchment is best simulated by radar data combined with rain gauge network data from inside the catchment, and (2) the rainfall estimated by radar adjusted by a few rain gauges outside the catchment can be used to simulate runoff equally as well as using the dense rain gauge network alone.

THE USE OF RADAR DATA IN THE NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF HEAVY RAINFALLS IN THE CHANGJIANG-HUAIHE RIVER BASIN

It is important for predictions of heavy rainfall to include radar data to provide better reflection of moisture. Numerical experiments were carried out with real cases of heavy rains in the Changjiang (Yangtze)-Huaihe River Basin using a PSU/NCAR mesoscale model that incorporated radar data. Processed radar data were added to the model to change the analysis of initial humidity field before 24-h numerical simulations were made and the results compared with a control experiment. It is suggested that the radar-data-incorporated numerical predictions could produce locations of precipitation areas and maximum rainfall that are closer to reality than the control, due to the fact that moisture and converging updraft are strengthened in the middle and lower levels of the troposphere in the area of heavy rains and areas nearby. The work is expected to improve numerical modeling and forecasts of heavy rains in middle and lower latitudes of China.

Kinematics and Microphysical Characteristics of the First Intense Rainfall Convective Storm Observed by Jiangsu Polarimetric Radar Network

The polarimetric radar network in Jiangsu Province has just been operationalized since 2020.The first intense precipitation event observed by this polarimetric radar network and disdrometer occurred during August 28-29,2020 and caused severe flooding and serious damage in eastern Jiangsu Province.The microphysics and kinetics for this heavy precipitation convective storm is diagnosed in this study,in order to promote the application of this polarimetric radar network.Drop size distribution(DSD)of this event is estimated from measurements of a ground disdrometer,and the corresponding three-dimensional atmospheric microphysical features are obtained from the multiple polarimetric radars.According to features of updraft and lighting,the evolution of the convective storm is divided into four stages:developing,mature with lightning,mature without lightning and dissipating.The DSD of this event is featured by a large number of raindrops and a considerable number of large raindrops.The microphysical characteristics are similar to those of warm-rain process,and ice-phase microphysical processes are active in the mature stages.The composite vertical structure of the convective storm indicates that deep ZDR and KDP columns coincide with strong updrafts during both mature stages.The hierarchical microphysical structure retrieved by the Hydrometeor Identification Algorithm(HID)shows that depositional growth has occurred above the melting level,and aggregation is the most widespread ice-phase process at the-10℃level or higher.During negative lightning activity,the presence of strongest updrafts and a large amount of ice-phase graupel by riming between the 0℃and-35℃layers generate strong negative electric fields within the cloud.These convective storms are typical warm clouds with very high precipitation efficiency,which cause high concentration of raindrops,especially the presence of large raindrops within a short period of time.The ice-phase microphysical processes above the melting layer also play an important role in the triggering and enhancing of precipitation.

Evaluation on Radar Reflectivity-Rainfall Rate (Z-R) Relationships for Guyana

The constant development of science and technology in weather radar results in high-resolution spatial and temporal rainfall estimates and improved early warnings of meteorological phenomena such as flood [1]. Weather radars do not measure the rainfall amount directly, so a relationship between the reflectivity (Z) and rainfall rate (R), called the Z-R relationship (Z = aRb), where a and b are empirical constants, can be used to estimate the rainfall amount. In this research, mathematical techniques were used to find the best climatological Z-R relationships for the Low Coastal Plain of Guyana. The reflectivity data from the S-Band Doppler Weather Radar for February 17 and 21, 2011 and May 8, 2012 together with the daily rainfall depths at 29 rainfall stations located within a 150 km radius were investigated. A climatological Z-R relationship type Z = 200R1.6 (Marshall-Palmer) configured by default into the radar system was used to investigate the correlation between the radar reflectivity and the rainfall by gauges. The same data sets were used with two distinct experimental Z-R relationships, Z = 300R1.4 (WSR-88D Convective) and Z = 250R1.2 (Rosenfeld Tropical) to determine if any could be applicable for area of study. By comprehensive regression analysis, New Z-R and R-Z relationships for each of the three events aforementioned were developed. In addition, a combination of all the samples for all three events were used to produce another relationship called “All in One”. Statistical measures were then applied to detect BIAS and Error STD in order to produce more evidence-based results. It is proven that different Z-R relationships could be calibrated into the radar system to provide more accurate rainfall estimation.

Diurnal Variation in the Vertical Profile of the Raindrop Size Distribution for Stratiform Rain as Inferred from Micro Rain Radar Observations in Sumatra

The diurnal variation in the vertical structure of the raindrop size distribution(RSD)associated with stratiform rain at Kototabang,West Sumatra(0.20°S,100.32°E),was investigated using micro rain radar(MRR)observations from January 2012 to August 2016.Along with the MRR data,the RSD from an optical disdrometer and vertical profile of precipitation from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission were used to establish the microphysical characteristics of diurnal rainfall.Rainfall during 0000–0600 LST and 1800–2400 LST had a lower concentration of small drops and a higher concentration of large drops when compared to rainfall during the daytime(0600–1800 LST).The RSD stratified on the basis of rain rate(R)showed a lower total concentration of drops and higher mass-weighted mean diameter in 0000–0600 LST and1800–2400 LST than in the daytime.During the daytime,the RSD is likely governed by a riming process that can be seen from a weak bright band(BB).On the other hand,during 0000–0600 LST and 1800–2400 LST,the BB was stronger and the rainfall was associated with a higher concentration of midsize and large drops,which could be attributed to more active aggregation right above the melting layer with minimal breakup.Diurnal variation in the vertical profile of RSD led to a different radar reflectivity(Z)–R relationship in the rain column,in which Z during the periods 0000–0600 LST and1800–2400 LST was larger than at the other times,for the same R.

Analysis of Vertical Profiles of Precipitable Liquid Water Content in a Tropical Climate Using Micro Rain Radar

In this paper, some distinctive features of the vertical profile of precipitable liquid water content (LWC) with considerable respect to rain rates (R) and radar reflectivity (Z) obtained in a tropical location are presented. Assessment of LWC allows applications in the specific area of flight icing severity, aviation safety as well as signals traversing through the atmosphere. The parameters were typically measured using vertically-pointing Micro Rain Radar (MRR) over a period of 2 years (2011-2012) at Akure, a tropical location of Nigeria. The radar scanned at every 10 seconds and integrated over one minute samples to reduce event logging error associated with the instrument. The vertical profile of the LWC typically reveals a prominent seasonal variation. However, majority of the LWC profiles has low LWC, less than 0.1 gm?3 while the maximum observed LWC is about 3.18 gm?3. A strong like hood relation was observed between the melting layer height and the LWC, with the LWC reaches peak at the considerable height of about 4160 m which coincides precisely with the freezing height level (rain height of ~4520 m) of the study location. Good correlation was also observed between the LWC and R in most of the heights considered. The results obtained will assist system engineers to assess the level of absorption, reflection and attenuation of electromagnetic signals as a result of precipitable LWC along the transmitting paths. The novelty of the present work is in the area of linking LWC and Z as against usual relation between Z and R.

STRUCTURE OF MESO-β AND –γ-SCALE ON SOUTH CHINA HEAVY RAINFALL ON 12～13 JUNE 2005 USING DUAL-DOPPLER RADAR

The three-dimensional wind fields of the heavy rain on 12-13 June 2005 in Guangdong province are retrieved and studied with the volume scan data of the dual-Doppler radar located in the cities of Meizhou and Shantou. It is shown that the meso-β-scale and meso-γ-scale convergence lines located in the convective system at the low and middle layer play an important role in the heavy rainfall. The convergence line is the initiating and maintaining mechanism of the rain. A three dimensional kinematic structure model is also given.

X-Band Mini Radar for Observing and Monitoring Rainfall Events

Quantitative precipitation estimation and rainfall monitoring based on meteorological data, potentially provides continuous, high-resolution and large-coverage data, are of high practical use: Think of hydrogeological risk management, hydroelectric power, road and tourism. Both conventional long-range radars and rain-gauges suffer from measurement errors and difficulties in precipitation estimation. For efficient monitoring operation of localized rain events of limited extension and of small basins of interest, an unrealistic extremely dense rain gauge network should be needed. Alternatively C-band or S-band meteorological long range radars are able to monitor rain fields over wide areas, however with not enough space and time resolution, and with high purchase and maintenance costs. Short-range X-band radars for rain monitoring can be a valid compromise solution between the two more common rain measurement and observation instruments. Lots of scientific efforts have already focused on radar-gauge adjustment and quantitative precipitation estimation in order to improve the radar measurement techniques. After some considerations about long range radars and gauge network, this paper presents instead some examples of how X-band mini radars can be very useful for the observation of rainfall events and how they can integrate and supplement long range radars and rain gauge networks. Three case studies are presented: A very localized and intense event, a rainfall event with high temporal and spatial variability and the employ of X-band mini radar in a mountainous region with narrow valleys. The adaptability of such radar devoted to monitor rain is demonstrated.

Analysis on the Radar Echo's Characteristics of One Severe Rainstorm in Central Guangxi

[Objective] The aim was to analyze radar echo characteristic of a heavy rainstorm in central Guangxi in June, 2010. [Method] Using conventional observations and automatic stations, Doppler radar and other data, a severe rainstorm in central of Guangxi which occurred on 31 May to 1 June 2010 was analyzed. The characteristics of weather radar data were analyzed to reveal the characteristics of radar echo during the heavy precipitation process. [ Result] The heavy rainstorm had gone through many singular wind storms towards MCS variation. The existence of ultra-sin- gular and ＂train effect＂ was the main reason of the heavy rainstorm. The results showed that during the heavy rainfall experienced an evolution process from multi-cell storm to MCS, and found that super cell and the ＂train effect＂ was the major reason which caused this torrential rain. The echo centroid of multi-cell storm stretching along its moving reverse order was the key factor which maintained the heavy rain. Analysis also found that the average echo intensity had a good relationship with rainfall. Strong echoes were in quasi-stationary state for a long time and was favorable heavy rain. In the diameter velocity diagram, mesoscale convergence line, the adverse wind regions and the mid-cyclone were the important basis to determine producing and keeping heavy rainfall. Radar wind profile can reflect the configuration of layers of wind conditions, and it was an effective tool to determine whether the trough was in transition or not. [ Conclusion] The study provided reference for the short-term and nowcasting report.

Improving Radar Rainfall Estimation by Accounting for Microphysical Processes Using a Micro Rain Radar in West Africa

This study evaluates the improvement of the radar Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) by involving microphysical processes in the determination of Z-R algorithms. Within the framework of the AMMA campaign, measurements of an X-band radar (Xport), a vertical pointing Micro Rain Radar (MRR) to investigate microphysical processes and a dense network of rain gauges deployed in Northern Benin (West Africa) in 2006 and 2007 were used as support to establish such estimators and evaluate their performance compared to other estimators in the literature. By carefully considering and correcting MRR attenuation and calibration issues, the Z-R estimator developed with the contribution of microphysical processes and non-linear least-squares adjustment proves to be more efficient for quantitative rainfall estimation and produces the best statistic scores than other optimal Z-R algorithms in the literature. We also find that it gives results comparable to some polarimetric algorithms including microphysical information through DSD integrated parameter retrievals.

Satellite SAR observation of the sea surface wind field caused by rain cells

Rain cells or convective rain,the dominant form of rain in the tropics and subtropics,can be easy detected by satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar（SAR） images with high horizontal resolution.The footprints of rain cells on SAR images are caused by the scattering and attenuation of the rain drops,as well as the downward airflow.In this study,we extract sea surface wind field and its structure caused by rain cells by using a RADARSAT-2 SAR image with a spatial resolution of 100 m for case study.We extract the sea surface wind speeds from SAR image by using CMOD4 geophysical model function with outside wind directions of NCEP final operational global analysis data,Advance Scatterometer（ASCAT） onboard European Met Op-A satellite and microwave scatterometer onboard Chinese HY-2 satellite,respectively.The root-mean-square errors（RMSE） of these SAR wind speeds,validated against NCEP,ASCAT and HY-2,are 1.48 m/s,1.64 m/s and 2.14 m/s,respectively.Circular signature patterns with brighter on one side and darker on the opposite side on SAR image are interpreted as the sea surface wind speed（or sea surface roughness） variety caused by downdraft associated with rain cells.The wind speeds taken from the transect profile which superposes to the wind ambient vectors and goes through the center of the circular footprint of rain cell can be fitted as a cosine or sine curve in high linear correlation with the values of no less than 0.80.The background wind speed,the wind speed caused by rain cell and the diameter of footprint of the rain cell with kilometers or tens of kilometers can be acquired by fitting curve.Eight cases interpreted and analyzed in this study all show the same conclusion.

An observational study on vertical raindrop size distributions during stratiform rain in a semiarid plateau climate zone

Vertical raindrop size distributions of two stratiform rain events were measured with a Micro Rain Radar during summer 2009 at a semiarid continental site located in Xilinhot, China （43°38′N, 116°42′E）. The sequential intensity filtering technique （SIFT） was used to minimize the effect of the spurious variability on disdrometric data to obtain the reflectivity-rain rate （Z-R） relationship （Z = αRb）. Compared with the least squares regression （LSR） method, SIFT led to a -5% to 4% change in the coefficient （a） and an 8%-1 5% increase in the exponent （b） of the Z-R relationship at 300 m. Rainfall estimation using the Z-R relationship with SIFT had lower standard deviation than that with LSR. The vertical variability of the mean rain rate, total raindrop numbers, and parameters （a and b） of the Z-R relationship was small below a melting layer, suggesting that using the radar reflectivity of weather radar to estimate stratiform rainfall is relatively accurate, at least in the Xilinhot area.

Multi-Layer Forecast Project of Rain-Induced Debris Flow

Based on four kinds of methods—numerical weather prediction model, cloud image of stationary meteorological satellite, echo image of meteorological radar and telemetric rain gauge, multi space-time scale precipitation prediction products have been achieved, and multi-layer project of debris flow forecast is established with different space-time scale to get different forecast precision. The forecast system has the advantages in combination of regions and ravines, rational compounding of time and space scale. The project, which has debris flow forecast models of Sichuan province, Liangshan district and single ravine, can forecast debris flow in 3 layers and meets the demand of hazard mitigation in corresponding layer.

Understanding the Variability of Z-R Relationships Caused by Natural Variations in Raindrop Size Distributions(DSD):Implication of Drop Size and Number

In the issue of rainfall estimation by radar through the necessary relationship between radar reflectivity Z and rain rate R (Z-R), the main limitation is attributed to the variability of this relationship. Indeed, several pre-vious studies have shown the great variability of this relationship in space and time, from a rainfall event to another and even within a single rainfall event. Recent studies have shown that the variability of raindrop size distributions and thereby Z-R relationships is therefore, more the result of complex dynamic, thermody-namic and microphysical processes within rainfall systems than a convective/stratiform classification of the ground rainfall signature. The raindrop number and size at ground being the resultant of various processes mentioned above, a suitable approach would be to analyze their variability in relation to that of Z-R relation-ship. In this study, we investigated the total raindrop concentration number NT and the median volume di-ameter D0 used in numerous studies, and have shown that the combination of these two ‘observed’ parame-ters appears to be an interesting approach to better understand the variability of the Z-R relationships in the rainfall events, without assuming a certain analytical raindrop size distribution model (exponential, gamma, or log-normal). The present study is based on the analysis of disdrometer data collected at different seasons and places in Africa, and aims to show the degree of the raindrop size and number implication in regard to the Z-R relationships variability.