Regulation of the growth of sprouting roots of black locust seedlings using root barrier panels

How can we regulate an invasive alien species of high commercial value?Black locust(Robinia pseudoacacia L.)has a unique capacity for seed dispersal and high germination.Field surveys indicate that black locust increases its growing area with sprouting roots and the elongation of horizontal roots at a soil depth of 10 cm.Therefore,a method to regulate the development of horizontal roots could be eff ective in slowing the invasiveness of black locust.In this study,root barrier panels were tested to inhibit the growth of horizontal roots.Since it is labor intensive to observe the growth of roots in the fi eld,it was investigated in a nursery setting.The decrease in secondary fl ush,an increase in yellowed leafl ets,and the height in the seedlings were measured.Installing root barrier panels to a depth of 30 cm eff ectively inhibit the growth of horizontal roots of young black locust.

QTL mapping for pre-harvest sprouting in a recombinant inbred line population of elite wheat varieties Zhongmai 578 and Jimai 22

Pre-harvest sprouting(PHS)is one of the serious global issues in wheat production.Identification of quantitative trait loci(QTL)and closely-linked markers is greatly helpful for wheat improvement.In the present study,a recombinant inbred line(RIL)population derived from the cross of Zhongmai 578(ZM578)/Jimai 22(JM22)and parents were phenotyped in five environments and genotyped by the wheat 50 K single-nucleotide polymorphism(SNP)array.Two QTL of germination index(GI),QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A,were detected,explaining 4.33%–5.58%and 4.43%–8.02%of the phenotypic variances,respectively.The resistant effect of QGI.caas-3A was contributed by JM22,whereas that of QGI.caas.5A was from ZM578.The two QTL did not correspond to any previously identified genes or genetic loci for PHSrelated traits according to their locations in the Chinese Spring reference genome,indicating that they are likely to be new loci for PHS resistance.Four kompetitive allele-specific PCR(KASP)markers K_AX-109605367and K_AX-179559687 flanking QGI.caas-3A,and K_AX-111258240 and K_AX-109402944flanking QGI.caas-5A,were developed and validated in a natural population of 100 wheat cultivars.The distribution frequency of resistance alleles at Qphs.caas-3A and Qphs.caas-5A loci were 82.7%and57.1%,respectively,in the natural population.These findings provide new QTL and tightly linked KASP markers for improvement of PHS resistance in wheat.

Identification of KASP markers and putative genes for pre-harvest sprouting resistance in common wheat(Triticum aestivum L.)

Common wheat(Triticum aestivum L.)is the most important crop in the world and a typical allopolyploid with a large and complex genome.Pre-harvest sprouting(PHS)leads to a significant reduction in grain quality worldwide.PHS is a complex trait with related QTL located on different chromosomes.However,the study of markers and genes related to PHS resistance is limited especially for whitegrained wheat.Four pairs of near isogenic lines(NILs)from a white-grained wheat cross of Chara
DM5637B*8 targeting a major QTL for PHS resistance(Qphs.ccsu-3A.1)on wheat chromosme 3AL were genotyped using the 90K SNP Illumina iSelect array.Ten SNPs were identified,with a 75%-100%consistency between genotype and phenotype in the resistant or susceptible isolines.The 10 SNPs were converted to cost-effective kompetitive allele-specific PCR(KASP)markers.Screening of 48 wheat cultivars with different phenotypes of PHS identified four KASP markers with 81.3%-85.4%conformity between genotype and phenotype.Further investigation revealed that the four SNPs(BS00022245_51,Kukri_c49927_151,BS00022884_51 and BS00110550_51)corresponding to the four validated KASP markers are residing in three independent genes(TraesCS3A03G1072800,TraesCS3A03G1072400,TraesCS3A03G1071800)close to each other with a distance of 4.28-4.48 Mb to the targeted QTL.These three annotated genes have potential functions related to PHS resistance.Our study revealed that combined use of NILs and the 90K SNP chip is a powerful approach for developing KASP markers and mining functional genes in wheat.The KASP markers for PHS resistance on chromosome 3AL are useful for high-throughput evaluation and marker-assisted selection,and the three identified genes could lead to a better understanding of the genetic pathways controlling PHS.

Evaluation of Pre-Harvest Sprouting(PHS)Resistance and Screening of High-Quality Varieties from Thirty-Seven Quinoa(Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)Resources in Chengdu Plain

Pre-harvest sprouting(PHS)will have a serious effect both on the yield and quality of quinoa(Chenopodium quinoaWilld.).It is crucial to select and breed quinoa varieties with PHS resistance and excellent agronomic traits for guidance production and utilization of quinoa.A comprehensive evaluation of the PHS resistance and agronomic traits of 37 species of quinoa resources was conducted in Chengdu Plain.The evaluation used various methods,including grain germination rate(GR),grain germination index(GI),total spike germination rate(SR),total grain germination index(SI),grey correlation analysis(GCA),cluster analysis and correlation analysis.Results showed significant differences in PHS resistance and agronomic traits amongst the 37 quinoa resources.CDU-23 was most resistant to PHS within 24 h,with a germination rate of 2.67%and 0%according to the GR and SR results,respectively.However,in the same time,CDU-31 showed the maximum susceptibility to PHS based on the SR of 31.07%,while CDU-34 was the most sensitive to PHS according to the GR of 100%.The comprehensive evaluation identified one and nine kinds of high resistance species for grain and whole spike germination,respectively.In both cases,the coefficients of variation(CV)for these parameters were 34.78%and 82.13%,respectively.GCA results showed that the magnitude of the association between each trait and yield in the thirty-seven quinoa resources was in the following order:thousand grain weight>seed length>seed area>seed width.Although the seed weight of CDU-18 reached 3.7010 g,the seed weight of CDU-5 was only 1.6030 g.However,the size of the seeds,their width and area did not correlate with their 1000-grain weight.There was a complex correlation between PHS resistance index and agronomic traits.Based on clustering analysis,thirty-seven quinoa resources were classified into three taxa.It was found that various taxa differed in PHS resistance and agronomic traits.Several comparisons of the aggregated data led to the selection of five varieties of quinoa,of which CDU-2 presented excellent agronomic qualities and strong PHS resistance.This study has provided a reference for breeding excellent quinoa varieties with PHS resistance.

Tolerant Mechanism and Chromosome Location of Gene Controlling Sprouting Tolerance in Aegilops Tauschii Cosson

An artificial amphiploid RSP (2n = 42, AABBDD) between tetraploid landrace Ailanmai(Triticum turgidum L., 2n= 28, AABB) and Aegilops tauschii (DD, 2n = 14) expressed high tolerance to preharvest sprouting which derived from Ae. tauschii. Tolerance to preharvest sprouting of RSP was examined by four ways in six varying periods after anthesis. The germination percentages of preharvest intact spikes were only 6.06 % in its high peak period of germination. Its tolerance was mainly decided by the seed a recessive trait which was controlled by one gene, located on chromosome 2D.

Axonal regeneration and sprouting as a potential therapeutic target for nervous system disorders

Nervous system disorders are prevalent health issues that will only continue to increase in frequency as the population ages.Dying-back axonopathy is a hallmark of many neurologic diseases and leads to axonal disconnection from their targets,which in turn leads to functional impairment.During the course of many of neurologic diseases,axons can regenerate or sprout in an attempt to reconnect with the target and restore synapse function.In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS),distal motor axons retract from neuromuscular junctions early in the disease-course before significant motor neuron death.There is evidence of compensatory motor axon sprouting and reinnervation of neuromuscular junctions in ALS that is usually quickly overtaken by the disease course.Potential drugs that enhance compensatory sprouting and encourage reinnervation may slow symptom progression and retain muscle function for a longer period of time in ALS and in other diseases that exhibit dying-back axonopathy.There remain many outstanding questions as to the impact of distinct disease-causing mutations on axonal outgrowth and regeneration,especially in regards to motor neurons derived from patient induced pluripotent stem cells.Compartmentalized microfluidic chambers are powerful tools for studying the distal axons of human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived motor neurons,and have recently been used to demonstrate striking regeneration defects in human motor neurons harboring ALS disease-causing mutations.Modeling the human neuromuscular circuit with human induced pluripotent stem cells-derived motor neurons will be critical for developing drugs that enhance axonal regeneration,sprouting,and reinnervation of neuromuscular junctions.In this review we will discuss compensatory axonal sprouting as a potential therapeutic target for ALS,and the use of compartmentalized microfluidic devices to find drugs that enhance regeneration and axonal sprouting of motor axons.

The association between the allelic state of <i>Vp</i>-1<i>B</i>and pre-harvest sprouting tolerance in red-seeded hexaploid triticale

The core collection of red-seeded winter hexaploid triticale with different pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) resistance has been evaluated for the allelic structure of the gene VIVIPAROUS-1B (Vp-1B) with STS molecular marker. The discovered structure of the collection was as follows: 50.0% and 41.7% of the collection carries Vp-1Bа and Vp-1Bc alleles, respectively, while 8,3% possesses both of them. As a result of the seed color estimation, the collection has been divided into two groups: with dark red seeds and light red seeds. The allele Vp-1Bc has appeared to be associated with PHS resistance while Vp-1Ba with PHS susceptibility in the triticale accessions with light red seeds only. The influence of the seed color and allelic state of Vp-1B on PHS resistance in triticale is discussed.

Isolation and Functional Characterization of a B3 Transcription Factor Gene <i>FUSCA3</i>Involved in Pre-Harvest Sprouting Resistance in Wheat

Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) reduces yields and grain quality, resulting in seriously economic losses in wheat. It has been showed that PHS is significantly correlated to seed dormancy levels. FUSCA3 (FUS3) gene is considered to be the key regulator of seed dormancy. However, little information is available about the function of FUS3 gene (TaFUS3) in wheat. In this study, three homologous genes were identified in wheat grain, and their functions were investigated by gene silencing. Three full-length DNA (3477, 3534 and 3501 bp) and cDNA (1015, 1012 and 1015 bp) sequences encoding a B3 transcription factor, designated TaFUS3-3A, TaFUS3-3B and TaFUS3-3D, were first isolated from common wheat. The transcription of three TaFUS3 genes in seed development and germination process was detected. TaFUS3-3B and TaFUS3-3D had similar expression profiles, and high levels of gene transcripts were detected in seeds at 25 DAP (days after pollination) and after 24 h of imbibition. However, the transcription of TaFUS3-3A was not detected. Silencing of TaFUS3 in common wheat spikes resulted in increased seed germination and PHS. Compared with wild-type, the TaFUS3-silenced plants showed increased expression of genes related to GA biosynthesis and ABA metabolism, and decreased expression of genes associated with ABA biosynthesis. Moreover, silencing of TaFUS3 in wheat plants led to a decrease in embryo sensitivity to ABA and changed the expression of genes involved in ABA signal transduction. The results of gene silencing indicated that TaFUS3 plays a positive role in wheat seed dormancy and PHS-resistance, which might be associated with ABA, GA level and signal transduction.

TaSRO1 interacts with TaVP1 to modulate seed dormancy and pre-harvest sprouting resistance in wheat

Dormancy is an adaptive trait which prevents seeds from germinating under unfavorable environmental conditions.Seeds with weak dormancy undergo pre-harvest sprouting(PHS)which decreases grain yield and quality.Understanding the genetic mechanisms that regulate seed dormancy and resistance to PHS is crucial for ensuring global food security.In this study,we illustrated the function and molecular mechanism of TaSRO1 in the regulation of seed dormancy and PHS resistance by suppressing TaVP1.The tasro1 mutants exhibited strong seed dormancy and enhanced resistance to PHS,whereas the mutants of tavp1 displayed weak dormancy.Genetic evidence has shown that TaVP1 is epistatic to TaSRO1.Biochemical evidence has shown that TaSRO1 interacts with TaVP1 and represses the transcriptional activation of the PHS resistance genes TaPHS1 and TaSdr.Furthermore,TaSRO1 undermines the synergistic activation of TaVP1 and TaABI5 in PHS resistance genes.Finally,we highlight the great potential of tasro1 alleles for breeding elite wheat cultivars that are resistant to PHS.

Netrin-3 Suppresses Diabetic Neuropathic Pain by Gating the Intra-epidermal Sprouting of Sensory

tDiabetic neuropathic pain(DNP)is the most common disabling complication of diabetes.Emerging evi-dence has linked the pathogenesis of DNP to the aberrant sprouting of sensory axons into the epidermal area;however,the underlying molecular events remain poorly understood.Here we found that an axon guidance molecule,Netrin-3(Ntn-3),was expressed in the sensory neurons of mouse dorsal root ganglia(DRGs),and downregulation of Ntn-3 expression was highly correlated with the severity of DNP in a diabetic mouse model.Genetic ablation of Ntn-3 increased the intra-epidermal sprouting of sensory axons and worsened the DNP in diabetic mice.In contrast,the elevation of Ntn-3 levels in DRGs significantly inhibited the intra-epidermal axon sprouting and alleviated DNP in diabetic mice.In con-clusion,our studies identified Ntn-3 as an important regula-tor of DNP pathogenesis by gating the aberrant sprouting of sensory axons,indicating that Ntn-3 is a potential druggable target for DNP treatment.

Ectopic discharges trigger sympathetic sprouting in rat dorsal root ganglia following peripheral nerve injury

Experimental backgrounds of ectopic discharges were made by i.p. administrating of 4-aninopyriding (4-AP), a K+ channel blocker, or anisodamine, a muscarinic receptor blocker, in CCI rats, and the sympathetic sprouting in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) as well as the heat-hyperalgesia was observed. It was demonstrated that the increased ectopic discharges induced by 4-AP promote sympathetic sprouting in the DRG and a greater number of sympathetic basket cells were developed, causing exacerbation of heat-hyperalgesia in CCI rats. On the contrary, the sympathetic sprouting in the DRG and heat-hyperalgesia are evidently diminished after anisodamine injection. Our results suggest that ectopic discharges may be an immediate factor in triggering sympathetic sprouting in DRG following peripheral nerve injury.

Sdr4 dominates pre-harvest sprouting and facilitates adaptation to local climatic condition in Asian cultivated rice

Pre-harvest sprouting(PHS),which reduces grain yield and quality,is controlled by seed dormancy genes.Because few dormancy-related genes have been cloned,the genetic basis of seed dormancy in rice(Oryza sativa L.)remains unclear.Here,we performed a genome-wide association study and linkage mapping to dissect the genetic basis of seed dormancy in rice.Our findings suggest that Seed Dormancy4(Sdr4),a central modulator of seed dormancy,integrates the abscisic acid and gibberellic acid signaling pathways at the transcriptional level.Haplotype analysis revealed that three Sdr4 alleles in rice cultivars already existed in ancestral Oryza rufipogon accessions.Furthermore,like the semi-dwarf 1(SD1)and Rc loci,Sdr4 underwent selection during the domestication and improvement of Asian cultivated rice.The distribution frequency of the Sdr4-n allele in different locations in Asia is negatively associated with local annual temperature and precipitation.Finally,we developed functional molecular markers for Sdr4,SD1,and Rc for use in molecular breeding.Our results provide clues about the molecular basis of Sdr4-regulated seed dormancy.Moreover,these findings provide guidance for utilizing the favorable alleles of Sdr4 and Rc to synergistically boost PHS resistance,yield,and quality in modern rice varieties.

Breeding for pre-harvest sprouting resistance in bread wheat under rainfed conditions

Pre-harvest sprouting in wheat is the germination of seeds within the spikes when rains occur after or during grain ripening, which occurs commonly in the barani tract of Pakistan. Therefore, 10 cultivars and five advanced lines of spring bread wheat were evaluated for pre-harvest sprouting resistance. After natural rainfall,seeds were immediately collected from the wet spikes and tested for germinating ability. Three different germination tests were applied to hand-threshed seed:(1) spikes threshed on the day of sampling and germination tested immediately,(2) spikes threshed on the day of sampling and germination tested 1 week later, and(3) spikes threshed 1 week after sampling and germination test immediately after threshing. Seeds and spikes kept for 1 week were place on blotting paper at room temperature.Cultivars BARS-09, 09 FJ17, Doukkala-12, NARC-09 and Ouassou-20 exhibited higher sprouting resistance while other genotypes were susceptible to pre-harvest sprouting in each of the three tests. A diallel crossing was conducted with six susceptible and two resistant genotypes to assess the genetic behavior of pre-harvest sprouting resistance.The combining ability(CA) demonstrated a higher proportion of additive genetic effects for sprouting resistance, because of higher variance of general and specific CA for both parameters under study. Doukkala-12 and BARS-09 showed increased pre-harvest sprouting resistance in their F1 descendants.

Comparative study of the effects of Tartary buckwheat seed and sprout consumption on the physiological indices and gut microbiota of C57BL/6J mice

Tartary buckwheat(Fagopyrum tataricum)is a well-known pseudocereal for its health and economic value.However,abundant antinutritional factors(ANFs)reduces its health benefits.As reported,germination can improve the nutritional profile of grains.In this study,we systematically evaluate the safety of Tartary buckwheat seeds(TB)and Tartary buckwheat sprouts(TBS)used as high active ingredients.After evaluating nutrition levels,bioactive compounds and ANFs in TBS during germinating,5^(th)-day TBS were selected as the raw material.C57BL/6J mice were gavaged daily with distilled water,TB,or TBS for 6 weeks.The physiological indices related to ANFs were determined.Results showed that the TB intake tends to generate negative effects on the gut microbiota,and organs.Additionally,upon TB intake,the Fe^(3+)content in serum,trypsin activity in pancreas and jejunum decreased,while the cytokine,IgE,and histamine levels in serum,water content in faeces,cytokine levels in liver and jejunum increased.Conversely,TBS did not induce any obvious negative effects on the above relevant indices and showed better lipid-lowering effect.Altogether,TBS are safer and more effective as a raw material to produce the functional food for long-term consumption with the intention of preventing and treating hyperlipidaemia.

Transcriptomics integrated with metabolomics reveals the mechanism of CaCl_(2)-HCl electrolyzed water-induced glucosinolate biosynthesis in broccoli sprouts

Glucosinolates are important phytochemicals in Brassicaceae.We investigated the effect of CaCl_(2)-HCl electrolyzed water(CHEW)on glucosinolates biosynthesis in broccoli sprouts.The results showed that CHEW treatment significantly decreased reactive oxygen species(ROS)and malondialdeh yde(MDA)contents in broccoli sprouts.On the the 8^(th)day,compared to tap water treatment,the the total glucosinolate content of broccoli sprouts with CHEW treatment increased by 10.6%and calcium content was dramatically enhanced from 14.4 mg/g DW to 22.7 mg/g DW.Comparative transcriptome and metabolome analyses revealed that CHEW treatment activated ROS and calcium signaling transduction pathways in broccoli sprouts and they interacted through MAPK cascades.Besides,CHEW treatment not only promoted the biosynthesis of amino acids,but also enhanced the expression of structural genes in glucosinolate synthesis through transcription factors(MYBs,bHLHs,WRKYs,etc.).The results of this study provided new insights into the regulatory network of glucosinolates biosynthesis in broccoli sprouts under CHEW treatment.

Anterior thalamic nuclei deep brain stimulation inhibits mossy fiber sprouting via 3′,5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A signaling pathway in a chronic epileptic monkey model

Background:Anterior thalamic nuclei(ATN)deep brain stimulation(DBS)is an effective method of controlling epilepsy,especially temporal lobe epilepsy.Mossy fiber sprouting(MFS)plays an indispensable role in the pathogenesis and progression of epilepsy,but the effect of ATN-DBS on MFS in the chronic stage of epilepsy and the potential underlying mechanisms are unknown.This study aimed to investigate the effect of ATN-DBS on MFS,as well as potential signaling pathways by a kainic acid(KA)-induced epileptic model.Methods:Twenty-four rhesus monkeys were randomly assigned to control,epilepsy(EP),EP-sham-DBS,and EP-DBS groups.KA was injected to establish the chronic epileptic model.The left ATN was implanted with a DBS lead and stimulated for 8 weeks.Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay,Western blotting,and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate MFS and levels of potential molecular mediators in the hippocampus.One-way analysis of variance,followed by the Tukeypost hoc correction,was used to analyze the statistical significance of differences among multiple groups.Results:ATN-DBS is found to significantly reduce seizure frequency in the chronic stage of epilepsy.The number of ectopic granule cells was reduced in monkeys that received ATN stimulation(P<0.0001).Levels of 3′,5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate(cAMP)and protein kinase A(PKA)in the hippocampus,together with Akt phosphorylation,were noticeably reduced in monkeys that received ATN stimulation(P=0.0030 andP=0.0001,respectively).ATN-DBS also significantly reduced MFS scores in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and CA3 sub-regions(allP<0.0001).Conclusion:ATN-DBS is shown to down-regulate the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway and Akt phosphorylation and to reduce the number of ectopic granule cells,which may be associated with the reduced MFS in chronic epilepsy.The study provides further insights into the mechanism by which ATN-DBS reduces epileptic seizures.

Precautionary analysis of sprouting potato eyes using hyperspectral imaging technology

Sprouted potatoes are not allowed for healthy diet.A good knowledge of the sprouting stage of potatoes can help manage the storage conditions and guide market distribution,thus enabling the quality assurance of potatoes on table.This article presented an intelligent method for precautionary analysis of potato eyes based on hyperspectral imaging technique.Potential potato eyes were classified into two categories according to the time gap to the sprouting date,i.e.by-sprouting and pre-sprouting potato eyes,representing eyes about to sprout and eyes that will take a while to sprout.Features used for classification were extracted by two methods,including successive projections algorithm(SPA)and a newly-developed sine fit algorithm(SFA).Then classifiers of fisher discriminant analysis(FDA)and least square support vector machine(LSSVM)were utilized for classification of potential sprouting potato eyes.Results showed that FDA was more effective than LSSVM in classifying pre-sprouting and by-sprouting potato eyes,and SFA performed well in FDA classifier with the recognition accuracy of 95.3%for prediction set.It is concluded that hyperspectral imaging has the potential for predicting the sprouting stages of potato eyes.

Nutrients and anti-nutrients of high chlorophyll-mungbean sprouts as affected by different periods of germination and sprouting stages

The variation of nutrient and anti-nutrient compounds in commercial mungbean cultivars(Chinat 72,MS-1,Chinat 80,and L3-8)during seven periods of germination and sprouting was determined.The seeds were selected randomly at 6 h of soaking(1^(st)stage),23 h(2^(nd)stage),47 h(3^(rd)stage),71 h(4^(th)stage),77 h(5^(th)stage)of sprouting,and 12 h,and 24 h of sunshine exposing(6th and 7th stage,respectively).It was found that nutrition compositions(including protein content,crude fiber content,vitamin C content,total minerals,and HCL-extractability of minerals)of all cultivars significantly increased with germination and sprouting.At the last stage,the total phenol was the highest amount which was not significantly different from all cultivars.The total antiradical capacity(%,DPPH inhibition)increased up to the maximum value in the last two stages of sprouting.The results showed that the phytic acid,the anti-nutrient component decreased with the consequence of germination,and reached the untraceable value at the last stage.In addition,the highest amount of chlorophyll(7.15-8.99 mg/100 g)was found in Chinat 72 and MS-1 cultivars at the last stage of sprouting,comparing to Chinat 80 and L3-8 cultivars.It is therefore recommended to consume high chlorophyll mungbean sprout with the benefits of high nutrient constituents and low price purchase comparing to other green vegetables.

Neuroprotective effects of meloxicam on transient brain ischemia in rats:the two faces of anti-inflammatory treatments

The inflammato ry response plays an important role in neuroprotection and regeneration after ischemic insult.The use of non-ste roidal anti-inflammatory drugs has been a matter of debate as to whether they have beneficial or detrimental effects.In this context,the effects of the anti-inflammatory agent meloxicam have been scarcely documented after stro ke,but its ability to inhibit both cyclooxygenase isoforms(1 and 2) could be a promising strategy to modulate postischemic inflammation.This study analyzed the effect of meloxicam in a transient focal cerebral ischemia model in rats,measuring its neuroprotective effect after 48 hours and 7 days of reperfusion and the effects of the treatment on the glial scar and regenerative events such as the generation of new progenitors in the subventricular zone and axonal sprouting at the edge of the damaged area.We show that meloxicam’s neuroprotective effects remained after 7 days of reperfusion even if its administration was restricted to the two first days after ischemia.Moreover,meloxicam treatment modulated glial scar reactivity,which matched with an increase in axonal sprouting.However,this treatment decreased the formation of neuronal progenitor cells.This study discusses the dual role of anti-inflammatory treatments after stro ke and encourages the careful analysis of both the neuroprotective and the regenerative effects in preclinical studies.

THE PREVENTION OF AXON-SPROUTING IN PARTIALLY DENERVATED MUSCLE BY BOTULINUM POISONING

In a previous work we showed that after crushing the nerve the reinnervation of the botulinum poisoned muscle could take place as readily as that of normal muscle so that rather quick restoration of function to the botulinum paralysed muscle could be effected through nerve regeneration. Soon afterwards Thesleff et al. reported the same result. When a normal muscle is partially denervated it is known that the residual motor axons can give collateral and ultraterminal sprouting, thereby reinnervating some of the denervated muscle fibres. Following up our previous work, we made the further inquiry whether such axon-sprouting could also occur in botulinum poisoned muscle. The answer came out to be negative. The observations made are briefly reported here. The experiments were done on the gas-