A spatiotemporal deep learning method for excavation-induced wall deflections

Data-driven approaches such as neural networks are increasingly used for deep excavations due to the growing amount of available monitoring data in practical projects.However,most neural network models only use the data from a single monitoring point and neglect the spatial relationships between multiple monitoring points.Besides,most models lack flexibility in providing predictions for multiple days after monitoring activity.This study proposes a sequence-to-sequence(seq2seq)two-dimensional(2D)convolutional long short-term memory neural network(S2SCL2D)for predicting the spatiotemporal wall deflections induced by deep excavations.The model utilizes the data from all monitoring points on the entire wall and extracts spatiotemporal features from data by combining the 2D convolutional layers and long short-term memory(LSTM)layers.The S2SCL2D model achieves a long-term prediction of wall deflections through a recursive seq2seq structure.The excavation depth,which has a significant impact on wall deflections,is also considered using a feature fusion method.An excavation project in Hangzhou,China,is used to illustrate the proposed model.The results demonstrate that the S2SCL2D model has superior prediction accuracy and robustness than that of the LSTM and S2SCL1D(one-dimensional)models.The prediction model demonstrates a strong generalizability when applied to an adjacent excavation.Based on the long-term prediction results,practitioners can plan and allocate resources in advance to address the potential engineering issues.

An efficient physics-guided Bayesian framework for predicting ground settlement profile during excavations in clay

Recently,the application of Bayesian updating to predict excavation-induced deformation has proven successful and improved prediction accuracy significantly.However,updating the ground settlement profile,which is crucial for determining potential damage to nearby infrastructures,has received limited attention.To address this,this paper proposes a physics-guided simplified model combined with a Bayesian updating framework to accurately predict the ground settlement profile.The advantage of this model is that it eliminates the need for complex finite element modeling and makes the updating framework user-friendly.Furthermore,the model is physically interpretable,which can provide valuable references for construction adjustments.The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through two field case studies,showing that it can yield satisfactory predictions for the settlement profile.

Rockburst criterion and evaluation method for potential rockburst pit depth considering excavation damage effect

Excavation-induced disturbances in deep tunnels will lead to deterioration of rock properties and formation of excavation damaged zone(EDZ).This excavation damage effect may affect the potential rockburst pit depth.Taking two diversion tunnels of Jinping II hydropower station for example,the relationship between rockburst pit depth and excavation damage effect is first surveyed.The results indicate that the rockburst pit depth in tunnels with severe damage to rock masses is relatively large.Subsequently,the excavation-induced damage effect is characterized by disturbance factor D based on the Hoek-Brown criterion and wave velocity method.It is found that the EDZ could be further divided into a high-damage zone(HDZ)with D=1 and weak-damage zone(WDZ),and D decays from one to zero linearly.For this,a quantitative evaluation method for potential rockburst pit depth is established by presenting a three-element rockburst criterion considering rock strength,geostress and disturbance factor.The evaluation results obtained by this method match well with actual observations.In addition,the weakening of rock mass strength promotes the formation and expansion of potential rockburst pits.The potential rockburst pit depth is positively correlated with HDZ and WDZ depths,and the HDZ depth has a significant contribution to the potential rockburst pit depth.

Subsurface multi-physical characterization of mountain excavation and city construction in loess plateau with a fiber-optic sensing system

Mountain excavation and city construction(MECC)projects being launched in the Loess Plateau in China involve the creation of large-scale artificial land.Understanding the subsurface evolution characteristics of the artificial land is essential,yet challenging.Here,we use an improved fiber-optic monitoring system for its subsurface multi-physical characterization.The system enables us to gather spatiotemporal distribution of various parameters,including strata deformation,temperature,and moisture.Yan’an New District was selected as a case study to conduct refined in-situ monitoring through a 77 m-deep borehole and a 30 m-long trench.Findings reveal that the ground settlement involves both the deformation of the filling loess and the underlying intact loess.Notably,the filling loess exhibits a stronger creep capability compared to underlying intact loess.The deformation along the profile is unevenly distributed,with a positive correlation with soil moisture.Water accumulation has been observed at the interface between the filling loess and the underlying intact loess,leading to a significant deformation.Moreover,the temperature and moisture in the filling loess have reached a new equilibrium state,with their depths influenced by atmospheric conditions measuring at 31 m and 26 m,respectively.The refined investigation allows us to identify critical layers that matter the sustainable development of newly created urban areas,and provide improved insights into the evolution mechanisms of land creation.

Numerical Simulation of Surrounding Rock Deformation and Grouting Reinforcement of Cross-Fault Tunnel under Different Excavation Methods

Tunnel construction is susceptible to accidents such as loosening, deformation, collapse, and water inrush, especiallyunder complex geological conditions like dense fault areas. These accidents can cause instability and damageto the tunnel. As a result, it is essential to conduct research on tunnel construction and grouting reinforcementtechnology in fault fracture zones to address these issues and ensure the safety of tunnel excavation projects. Thisstudy utilized the Xianglushan cross-fault tunnel to conduct a comprehensive analysis on the construction, support,and reinforcement of a tunnel crossing a fault fracture zone using the three-dimensional finite element numericalmethod. The study yielded the following research conclusions: The excavation conditions of the cross-fault tunnelarray were analyzed to determine the optimal construction method for excavation while controlling deformationand stress in the surrounding rock. The middle partition method (CD method) was found to be the most suitable.Additionally, the effects of advanced reinforcement grouting on the cross-fault fracture zone tunnel were studied,and the optimal combination of grouting reinforcement range (140°) and grouting thickness (1m) was determined.The stress and deformation data obtained fromon-site monitoring of the surrounding rock was slightly lower thanthe numerical simulation results. However, the change trend of both sets of data was found to be consistent. Theseresearch findings provide technical analysis and data support for the construction and design of cross-fault tunnels.

Exploring the feasibility of prestressed anchor cables as an alternative to temporary support in the excavation of super-large-span tunnel

Excavating super-large-span tunnels in soft rock masses presents significant challenges.To ensure safety,the sequential excavation method is commonly adopted.It utilizes internal temporary supports to spatially partition the tunnel face and divide the excavation into multiple stages.However,these internal supports generally impose spatial constraints,limiting the use of large-scale excavation equipment and reducing construction efficiency.To address this constraint,this study adopts the“Shed-frame”principle to explore the feasibility of an innovative support system,which aims to replace internal supports with prestressed anchor cables and thus provide a more spacious working space with fewer internal obstructions.To evaluate its effectiveness,a field case involving the excavation of a 24-m span tunnel in soft rock is presented,and an analysis of extensive field data is conducted to study the deformation characteristics of the surrounding rock and the mechanical behavior of the support system.The results revealed that prestressed anchor cables integrated the initial support with the shed,creating an effective“shed-frame”system,which successively maintained tunnel deformation and frame stress levels within safe regulatory bounds.Moreover,the prestressed anchor cables bolstered the surrounding rock effectively and reduced the excavation-induced disturbance zone significantly.In summary,the proposed support system balances construction efficiency and safety.These field experiences may offer valuable insights into the popularization and further development of prestressed anchor cable support systems.

A modified back analysis method for deep excavation with multi-objective optimization procedure

Real-time prediction of excavation-induced displacement of retaining pile during the deep excavation process is crucial for construction safety.This paper proposes a modified back analysis method with multi-objective optimization procedure,which enables a real-time prediction of horizontal displacement of retaining pile during construction.As opposed to the traditional stage-by-stage back analysis,time series monitoring data till the current excavation stage are utilized to form a multi-objective function.Then,the multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm is applied for parameter identification.The optimized model parameters are immediately adopted to predict the excavation-induced pile deformation in the continuous construction stages.To achieve efficient parameter optimization and real-time prediction of system behavior,the back propagation neural network (BPNN) is established to substitute the finite element model,which is further implemented together with MOPSO for automatic operation.The proposed approach is applied in the Taihu tunnel excavation project,where the effectiveness of the method is demonstrated via the comparisons with the site monitoring data.The method is reliable with a prediction accuracy of more than 90%.Moreover,different optimization algorithms,including non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II),Pareto Envelope-based Selection Algorithm II (PESA-II) and MOPSO,are compared,and their influences on the prediction accuracy at different excavation stages are studied.The results show that MOPSO has the best performance for high dimensional optimization task.

Deterministic and probabilistic analysis of great-depth braced excavations:A 32 m excavation case study in Paris

The Fort d’Issy-Vanves-Clamart(FIVC)braced excavation in France is analyzed to provide insights into the geotechnical serviceability assessment of excavations at great depth within deterministic and probabilistic frameworks.The FIVC excavation is excavated at 32 m below the ground surface in Parisian sedimentary basin and a plane-strain finite element analysis is implemented to examine the wall deflections and ground surface settlements.A stochastic finite element method based on the polynomial chaos Kriging metamodel(MSFEM)is then proposed for the probabilistic analyses.Comparisons with field measurements and former studies are carried out.Several academic cases are then conducted to investigate the great-depth excavation stability regarding the maximum horizontal wall deflection and maximum ground surface settlement.The results indicate that the proposed MSFEM is effective for probabilistic analyses and can provide useful insights for the excavation design and construction.A sensitivity analysis for seven considered random parameters is then implemented.The soil friction angle at the excavation bottom layer is the most significant one for design.The soil-wall interaction effects on the excavation stability are also given.

Evaluation of excavation damaged zones(EDZs)in Horonobe Underground Research Laboratory(URL)

Excavation of underground caverns,such as mountain tunnels and energy-storage caverns,may cause the damages to the surrounding rock as a result of the stress redistribution.In this influenced zone,new cracks and discontinuities are created or propagate in the rock mass.Therefore,it is effective to measure and evaluate the acoustic emission(AE)events generated by the rocks,which is a small elastic vibration,and permeability change.The authors have developed a long-term measurement device that incorporates an optical AE(O-AE)sensor,an optical pore pressure sensor,and an optical temperature sensor in a single multi-optical measurement probe(MOP).Japan Atomic Energy Agency has been conducting R&D activities to enhance the reliability of high-level radioactive waste(HLW)deep geological disposal technology.In a high-level radioactive disposal project,one of the challenges is the development of methods for long-term monitoring of rock mass behavior.Therefore,in January 2014,the long-term measurements of the hydro-mechanical behavior of the rock mass were launched using the developed MOP in the vicinity of 350 m below the surface at the Horonobe Underground Research Center.The measurement results show that AEs occur frequently up to 1.5 m from the wall during excavation.In addition,hydraulic conductivity increased by 2e4 orders of magnitude.Elastoplastic analysis revealed that the hydraulic behavior of the rock mass affected the pore pressure fluctuations and caused micro-fractures.Based on this,a conceptual model is developed to represent the excavation damaged zone(EDZ),which contributes to the safe geological disposal of radioactive waste.

Application of Roadway Spray Material to Fire Prevention in Goaf Excavation

In order to reduce the risk of spontaneous combustion in goaf during goaf excavation process, polymer modified cement mortar spraying material was used to spray and seal the roadway surface. The experimental application was carried out in the upper channel 2304 of a mine in Henan Province. The test results showed that polymer modified cement mortar spraying material could effectively support the roadway and greatly reduce the deformation rate of the roadway. The best spraying thickness is 5 mm. Through the monitoring of tunnel air leakage, it is concluded that the polymer modified cement mortar spraying material can reduce the tunnel air leakage and play a better sealing effect.

Predicting the Thickness of an Excavation Damaged Zone around the Roadway Using the DA-RF Hybrid Model

After the excavation of the roadway,the original stress balance is destroyed,resulting in the redistribution of stress and the formation of an excavation damaged zone(EDZ)around the roadway.The thickness of EDZ is the key basis for roadway stability discrimination and support structure design,and it is of great engineering significance to accurately predict the thickness of EDZ.Considering the advantages of machine learning(ML)in dealing with high-dimensional,nonlinear problems,a hybrid prediction model based on the random forest(RF)algorithm is developed in this paper.The model used the dragonfly algorithm(DA)to optimize two hyperparameters in RF,namely mtry and ntree,and used mean absolute error(MAE),rootmean square error(RMSE),determination coefficient(R^(2)),and variance accounted for(VAF)to evaluatemodel prediction performance.A database containing 217 sets of data was collected,with embedding depth(ED),drift span(DS),surrounding rock mass strength(RMS),joint index(JI)as input variables,and the excavation damaged zone thickness(EDZT)as output variable.In addition,four classic models,back propagation neural network(BPNN),extreme learning machine(ELM),radial basis function network(RBF),and RF were compared with the DA-RF model.The results showed that the DARF mold had the best prediction performance(training set:MAE=0.1036,RMSE=0.1514,R^(2)=0.9577,VAF=94.2645;test set:MAE=0.1115,RMSE=0.1417,R^(2)=0.9423,VAF=94.0836).The results of the sensitivity analysis showed that the relative importance of each input variable was DS,ED,RMS,and JI from low to high.

A post-peak dilatancy model for soft rock and its application in deep tunnel excavation

The dilation angle is the most commonly used parameter to study nonlinear post-peak dilatancy(PPD)behavior and simulate surrounding rock deformation;however,simplified or constant dilatancy models are often used in numerical calculations owing to their simple mathematical forms.This study developed a PPD model for rocks(rock masses)based on the Alejanoe-Alonso(A-A)dilatancy model.The developed model comprehensively reflects the influences of confining pressure(σ_(3))and plastic shear strain(γ^(p)),with the advantages of a simple mathematical form,while requiring fewer parameters and demonstrating a clear physical significance.The overall fitting accuracy of the PPD model for 11 different rocks was found to be higher than that of the A-A model,particularly for Witwatersrand quartzite and jointed granite.The applicability and reliability of the PPD model to jointed granites and different scaled Moura coals were also investigated,and the model was found to be more suitable for the soft and large-scale rocks,e.g.deep rock mass.The PPD model was also successfully applied in studying the mechanical response of a circular tunnel excavated in strain-softening rock mass,and the developed semi-analytical solution was compared and verified with existing analytical solutions.The sensitivities of the rock dilatancy to γ^(p) and σ_(3) showed significant spatial variabilities along the radial direction of the surrounding rock,and the dilation angle did not exhibit a monotonical increasing or decreasing law from the elasticeplastic boundary to the tunnel wall,thereby presenting the σ3-or γ^(p)-dominated differential effects of rock dilatancy.Tunnel deformation parabolically or exponentially increased with increasing in situ stress(buried depth).The developed PPD model is promising to conduct refined numerical and analytical analyses for deep tunneling,which produces extensive plastic deformation and exhibits significant nonlinear post-peak behavior.

Excavation compensation theory and supplementary technology system for large deformation disasters

Given the challenges in managing large deformation disasters in energy engineering,traffic tunnel engineering,and slope engineering,the excavation compensation theory has been proposed for large deformation disasters and the supplementary technology system is developed accordingly.This theory is based on the concept that“all destructive behaviors in tunnel engineering originate from excavation.”This paper summarizes the development of the excavation compensation theory in five aspects:the“theory,”“equipment,”“technology,”the design method with large deformation mechanics,and engineering applications.First,the calculation method for compensation force has been developed based on this theory,and a comprehensive large deformation disaster control theory system is formed.Second,a negative Poisson's ratio anchor cable with high preload,large deformation,and super energy absorption characteristics has been independently developed and applied to large deformation disaster control.An intelligent tunnel monitoring and early warning cloud platform system are established for remote monitoring and early warning system of Newton force in landslide geological hazards.Third,the double gradient advance grouting technology,the two-dimensional blasting technology,and the integrated Newton force monitoring--early warning--control technology are developed for different engineering environments.Finally,some applications of this theory in China's energy,traffic tunnels,landslide,and other field projects have been analyzed,which successfully demonstrates the capability of this theory in large deformation disaster control.

A rigid true triaxial apparatus for analyses of deformation and failure features of deep weak rock under excavation stress paths

The squeezing scenario in deep weak rock tunnels can hinder underground construction.However,due to the limitations of test technologies at hand,the real excavation stress path cannot be mimicked in the laboratory.Thus,the large deformation mechanism of deep weak rocks still remains unclear.For this,a true triaxial apparatus(TTA)to investigate the mechanical responses of deep weak rock under excavation stress paths in field and reveal the squeezing mechanism of deep tunnels is assembled and developed at Northeastern University,China.The apparatus can perform instantaneous unloading in s3 direction based on electromagnetism technology.In addition,uniform loading and deformation measurements can be carried out based on the proposed linked interlocking clamp and antifriction device,even if the sample has a strong dilatation deformation performance.Next,a bore trepanning is designed to capture noiseless acoustic emission(AE)signals for deep weak rock at a low threshold.Finally,two tests were are conducted using this instrument to preliminarily understand the failure and deformation features of deep weak rock based on fractured marble.The results show that the complete stressestrain curves of fractured marble have the characteristics of low strengths and large deformations,and the larger deformation and the more serious failure occur when the fractured marble enters the post-peak state after excavation.The results show that the developed apparatus is likely to be applicable for deep weak rock engineering.

Construction Technology and Safety Risk Control Measures of Deep Foundation Pit Excavation

Deep foundation pit excavation is a basic and key step involved in modern building construction.In order to ensure the construction quality and safety of deep foundation pits,this paper takes a project as an example to analyze deep foundation pit excavation technology,including the nature of this construction project,the main technical measures in the construction of deep foundation pit,and the analysis of the safety risk prevention and control measures.The purpose of this analysis is to provide scientific reference for the construction quality and safety of deep foundation pits.

Formulation and procedure for in situ stress back-analysis from borehole strain changes measured during nearby underground excavation

Estimation of in situ stresses based on back-analysis of measured stress changes and displacements has become an alternative to the direct stress measurement methods.In order to help users conduct own measurement and analysis,this paper presents in detail a field stress back-analysis approach directly from borehole strain changes measured during nearby underground excavation.Essential formulations in major steps and the procedure for the entire analysis process are provided to allow users to follow.The instrument for borehole strain change measurement can be the CSIR or CSIRO stress cells and other borehole strain cells that can measure strains on borehole walls.Strain changes corresponding to the stress changes at a borehole location are calculated in borehole environment.The stress changes due to nearby excavation can be calculated by an analytical model for a single circular opening and simulated by a numerical model for non-circular and multiple openings.These models are based on isotropic,homogeneous and linear elastic assumptions.The analysis of borehole strain changes is accomplished by multiple linear regression based on error minimization and an integrated process provides the best-fit solution directly to the in situ stresses.A statistical technique is adopted for screening outliers in the measurement data,checking measurement compatibility and evaluating the reliability of analysis results.An application example is included to demonstrate the practical application and the analysis procedure.

Model test of negative Poisson’s ratio cable for supporting super-largespan tunnel using excavation compensation method

In recent years,there is a scenario in urban tunnel constructions to build super-large-span tunnels for traffic diversion and route optimization purposes.However,the increased size makes tunnel support more difficult.Unfortunately,there are few studies on the failure and support mechanism of the surrounding rocks in the excavation of supported tunnel,while most model tests of super-large-span tunnels focus on the failure characteristics of surrounding rocks in tunnel excavation without supports.Based on excavation compensation method(ECM),model tests of a super-large-span tunnel excavation by different anchor cable support methods in the initial support stage were carried out.The results indicate that during excavation of super-large-span tunnel,the stress and displacement of the shallow surrounding rocks decrease,following a step-shape pattern,and the tunnel failure is mainly concentrated on the vault and spandrel areas.Compared with conventional anchor cable supports,the NPR(negative Poisson’s ratio)anchor cable support is more suitable for the initial support stage of the super-large-span tunnels.The tunnel support theory,model test materials,methods,and the results obtained in this study could provide references for study of similar super-large-span tunnels。

Stability monitoring and evaluation of the modeled test square for prehistoric earthen sites during excavation period

In order to explore the stability of test square during archaeological excavation for prehistoric earthen sites in Hangzhou, a modeled test square with 2. 3 min depth, inplane dimensions of 5 min width by 5 m in length, and an archaeological column in the middle was excavated by means of a top-down excavation technique. To investigate the stability performance of the modeled test square and the associated effect on the adjacent area, a real-time comprehensive instrumentation program was conducted during the excavation. Field observations included ground settlements, lateral displacement, pore pressure and underground water level. Monitoring data indicates that the ground settlement induced by dewatering and unloading action basically decreases with the increase of the distance away from the pit edge, and the lateral displacements at four sides showa nonlinear variation along the depth. The maximum value is far below the acceptable value regulated by the related standard,which validates the stability of the modeled test square during excavation. Variations of pore pressure and water level suggest that long-term stability should be paid more attention due to the slowconsolidation of soft soil. Meanwhile, it is proved that the step shape of the wall can resist lateral displacement more effectively than the vertical shape of wall. This case study provides insights into the real archaeological excavation in Hangzhou, in particular Liangzhu prehistoric earthen sites.

Reliability analysis of anti-pull piles under excavation

The impact of excavation on the reliability of anti- pull piles is studied, and three cases of reliability analysis, named reliability of ultimate limit state （ULS）, reliability of serviceability limit state （SLS） and reliability of system （SYS） are studied. The reduction factor of the pile capacity is used to calculate the reliability indices for the three cases. The ratio ξ of the pile capacity of SLS to the pile capacity of ULS has a significant influence on the reliability indices of SLS and SYS. The mean value μξ of the ratio ξ： is considered as a random variable to study the reliability indices of SLS and SYS. The numerical example demonstrates that the excavation depth and the excavation diameter are proved to have significant influences on the reduction factor of the pile capacity and the reliability indices. The reliability indices decrease with the increase in the excavation depth, and the excavation diameter has a considerable influence on the reliability index when the excavation is relatively deep. In addition, μξ has a significant influence on the reliability indices of SLS and SYS. For a more accurate estimation of μξ, further research should be conducted to study μξ.

Numerical analyses of influence of overlying pit excavation on existing tunnels

The response of existing tunnel due to overlying excavation was studied using 2D FEM (Finite element method). Three typical locations of tunnel with respect to excavation, namely at the central line under the excavation bottom, directly under the base of diaphragm wall and outside of diaphragm, were considered. The variation of tunnel response with the change of location of tunnel was analyzed. The stress path of soil surrounding tunnel during the process of excavation was compared. Numerical analysis results indicate that the underlying tunnels at different locations under the excavation will experience convergence and divergence due to overlying excavation. Moreover, the tunnel located below base of diaphragm wall will experience distortion. The deformation is mainly due to the uneven changes of ground contact pressure on tunnel linings. Both the vertical and horizontal displacement of the tunnel decrease with the increase of the tunnel embedded depth beneath the formation of excavation.