Physical and mechanical properties and microstructures of submarine soils in the Yellow Sea

In recent years,the exploration of seabed has been intensified,but the submarine soils of silt and sand in the Yellow Sea area have not been well investigated so far.In this study,the physical and mechanical properties of silt and sand from the Yellow Sea were measured using a direct shear apparatus and their microstructures were observed using a scanning electron microscope.The test results suggest that the shear strength of silt and sand increases linearly with the increase of normal stress.Based on the direct shear test,the scanning electron microscope was used to observe the section surface of sand.It is observed that the section surface becomes rough,with many“V”‐shaped cracks.Many particles appear on the surface of the silt structure and tend to be disintegrated.The X‐ray diffraction experiment reveals that the sand and silt have different compositions.The shear strength of sand is slightly greater than that of silt under high stress,which is related to the shape of soil particles and the mineral composition.These results can be a reference for further study of other soils in the Yellow Sea;meanwhile,they can serve as soil parameters for the stability and durability analyses of offshore infrastructure construction.

Numerical study on local scour characteristics around submarine pipelines in the Yellow River Delta silty sandy soil under waves and currents

Due to their high reliability and cost-efficiency,submarine pipelines are widely used in offshore oil and gas resource engineering.Due to the interaction of waves,currents,seabed,and pipeline structures,the soil around submarine pipelines is prone to local scour,severely affecting their operational safety.With the Yellow River Delta as the research area and based on the renormalized group(RNG)k-εturbulence model and Stokes fifth-order wave theory,this study solves the Navier-Stokes(N-S)equation using the finite difference method.The volume of fluid(VOF)method is used to describe the fluid-free surface,and a threedimensional numerical model of currents and waves-submarine pipeline-silty sandy seabed is established.The rationality of the numerical model is verified using a self-built waveflow flume.On this basis,in this study,the local scour development and characteristics of submarine pipelines in the Yellow River Delta silty sandy seabed in the prototype environment are explored and the influence of the presence of pipelines on hydrodynamic features such as surrounding flow field,shear stress,and turbulence intensity is analyzed.The results indicate that(1)local scour around submarine pipelines can be divided into three stages:rapid scour,slow scour,and stable scour.The maximum scour depth occurs directly below the pipeline,and the shape of the scour pits is asymmetric.(2)As the water depth decreases and the pipeline suspension height increases,the scour becomes more intense.(3)When currents go through a pipeline,a clear stagnation point is formed in front of the pipeline,and the flow velocity is positively correlated with the depth of scour.This study can provide a valuable reference for the protection of submarine pipelines in this area.

Sedimentary architecture of submarine channel-lobe systems under different seafloor topography:Insights from the Rovuma Basin offshore East Africa

Seafloor topography plays an important role in the evolution of submarine lobes.However,it is still not so clear how the shape of slope affects the three-dimensional(3-D)architecture of submarine lobes.In this study,we analyze the effect of topography factors on different hierarchical lobe architectures that formed during Pliocene to Quaternary in the Rovuma Basin offshore East Africa.We characterize the shape,size and growth pattern of different hierarchical lobe architectures using 3-D seismic data.We find that the relief of the topographic slope determines the location of preferential deposition of lobe complexes and single lobes.When the topography is irregular and presents topographic lows,lobe complexes first infill these depressions.Single lobes are deposited preferentially at positions with higher longitudinal(i.e.across-slope)slope gradients.As the longitudinal slope becomes higher,the aspect ratio of the single lobes increases.Lateral(i.e.along-slope)topography does not seem to have a strong influence on the shape of single lobe,but it seems to affect the overlap of single lobes.When the lateral slope gradient is relatively high,the single lobes tend to have a larger overlap surface.Furthermore,as the average of lateral slope and longitudinal slope gets greater,the width/thickness ratio of the single lobe is smaller,i.e.sediments tend to accumulate vertically.The results demonstrate that the shape of slopes more comprehensively influences the 3-D architecture of lobes in natural deep-sea systems than previously other lobe deposits and analogue experiments,which helps us better understand the development and evolution of the distal parts of turbidite systems.

Bending Failure Mode and Prediction Method of the Compressive Strain Capacity of A Submarine Pipeline with Dent Defects

A dent is a common type of defects for submarine pipeline.For submarine pipelines,high hydrostatic pressure and internal pressure are the main loads.Once pipelines bend due to complex subsea conditions,the compression strain capacity may be exceeded.Research into the local buckling failure and accurate prediction of the compressive strain capacity are important.A finite element model of a pipeline with a dent is established.Local buckling failure under a bending moment is investigated,and the compressive strain capacity is calculated.The effects of different parameters on pipeline local buckling are analyzed.The results show that the dent depth,external pressure and internal pressure lead to different local buckling failure modes of the pipeline.A higher internal pressure indicates a larger compressive strain capacity,and the opposite is true for external pressure.When the ratio of external pressure to collapse pressure of intact pipeline is greater than 0.1,the deeper the dent,the greater the compressive strain capacity of the pipeline.And as the ratio is less than 0.1,the opposite is true.On the basis of these results,a regression equation for predicting the compressive strain capacity of a dented submarine pipeline is proposed,which can be referred to during the integrity assessment of a submarine pipeline.

The Middle Miocene lobe-shaped and band-shaped submarine fans in the Lingshui Sag,Qiongdongnan Basin:source-to-sink system,genesis and implication

Deepwater oil and gas exploration is the key to sustainable breakthroughs in petroleum exploration worldwide.The Central Canyon gas field has confirmed the Lingshui Sag is a hydrocarbon-generating sag,and the deepwater reservoirs in the Lingshui Sag still have more fabulous oil and gas exploration potential.Based on drilling data and three-dimensional(3D)seismic data,this paper uses seismic facies analysis,seismic attribute analysis,and coherence slice analysis to identify the types of submarine fans(lobe-shaped and band-shaped submarine fans)that developed in the Lingshui Sag during the Middle Miocene,clarify the source-to-sink system of the submarine fans and discuss the genesis mechanism of the submarine fans.The results show that:(1)the deepwater source-to-sink system of the Lingshui Sag in the Middle Miocene mainly consisted of a“delta(sediment supply)-submarine canyon(sediment transport channel)-submarine fan(deepwater sediment sink)”association;(2)the main factor controlling the formation of the submarine fans developed in the Lingshui Sag was on the relative sea level decline;and(3)the bottom current reworked the lobe-shaped submarine fan that developed in the northern Lingshui Sag and formed the band-shaped submarine fan with a greater sand thickness.This paper aims to provide practical geological knowledge for subsequent petroleum exploration and development in the deepwater area of the Qiongdongnan Basin through a detailed analysis of the Middle Miocene submarine fan sedimentary system developed in the Lingshui Sag.

Experimental and numerical analysis on suitability of S-Glass-Carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites for submarine hull

Suitability of S-Glass/carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite for submarine hull subjected to hydrostatic pressure has been investigated in the present study.Metallic materials have raised concerns owing to their decomposition due to low resistance towards salinity and hence polymer composites have been explored to showcase their mechanical stability to withstand transverse and impact loads.To this end,the mechanical properties of S-Glass/carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite were experimentally investigated and higher specific strength and stiffness of the composite in comparison to many metallic materials used for submarine hull were reported.The obtained experimental values were used for the static and dynamic crash analysis of the bow,stern and foil through Finite Element Analysis(FEA);where depth of travel was varied from sea surface level of 0-7000 m.Submarine assembly was later developed with the optimum shape and thickness of each part.We also report the nonlinear crash analysis upon impact at velocity ranging from 3 to 21 m/s.Besides,kinetic energy,acceleration peak and internal energy in struck submarine revealed that travel depth 1750 m and 3500 m is recommendable,more particularly,crash safety factor of the submarine is found to be within limit when submarine encounters crash at 1750 m.

Evaluation of the submarine debris-flow hazard risks to planned subsea pipeline systems: a case study in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea

The ever-increasing deepwater oil and gas development in the Qiongdongnan Basin,South China Sea has initiated the need to evaluate submarine debris-flow hazard risks to seafloor infrastructures.This paper presents a case study on evaluating the debris-flow hazard risks to the planned pipeline systems in this region.We used a numerical model to perform simulations to support this quantitative evaluation.First,one relict failure interpreted across the development site was simulated.The back-analysis modeling was used to validate the applicability of the rheological parameters.Then,this model was applied to forecast the runout behaviors of future debris flows originating from the unstable upslope regions considered to be the most critical to the pipeline systems surrounding the Manifolds A and B.The model results showed that the potential debris-flow hazard risks rely on the location of structures and the selection of rheological parameters.For the Manifold B and connected pipeline systems,because of their remote distances away from unstable canyon flanks,the potential debris flows impose few risks.However,the pipeline systems around the Manifold A are exposed to significant hazard risks from future debris flows with selected rheological parameters.These results are beneficial for the design of a more resilient pipeline route in consideration of future debris-flow hazard risks.

Submarine volcanism in the southern margin of the South China Sea

Submarine volcanism is widely developed in the South China Sea(SCS).However,the characteristics,distribution,and genesis of submarine volcanoes in the southern margin of the SCS remain obscure.In this study,we analyzed the characteristics of submarine volcanoes and identified a total of 43 submarine volcanoes in the southern margin of the SCS,based on a newly acquired 310-km seismic reflection profile,along with previous 45 multi-channel seismic(MCS)profiles,petrological results from volcanic rocks sampled by dredging and drilling,nearby ocean bottom seismometer(OBS)wide-angle seismic profiles,and gravity and magnetic data.The study ascertains that most of these volcanoes are located in fault-block belts and graben-horst zones with strong crustal stretching and thinning.These volcanoes exhibit positive high-amplitude external seismic reflections,weak and chaotic internal seismic reflections,and are accompanied by local deformation of the surrounding sedimentary strata.Meanwhile,they have higher positive gravity anomalies and higher magnetic anomalies than the background strata.The petrological dating results show that volcanic ages are primarily in the Pliocene-Pleistocene,with geochemical characteristics indicating dominance of oceanic island basalt(OIB)-type alkali-basalts.Extensional faults have obviously spatial correspondence with post-spreading volcanism,suggesting these faults may provide conduits for submarine volcanism.The high-velocity bodies(HVBs)in the lower crust and magma underplating exist in the southern SCS,which could provide a clue of genesis for submarine volcanism.The inference is that the intensity of post-spreading volcanism in the southern margin might be affected by stretching faults,crustal thinning and magma underplating.

Using radium isotopes to evaluate the uncertainty of submarine groundwater discharge in the northeast and entirety of Daya Bay

Submarine groundwater discharge(SGD),which can be traced using naturally occurring radium isotopes,has been recognized as a significant nutrient source and land-ocean interaction passage for the coastal waters of the Daya Bay,China.However,uncertainties in assessing SGD fluxes must still be discussed in detail.In this study,we attempted to utilize the Monte Carlo method to evaluate the uncertainties of radium-derived SGD flux in the northeast and entirety of the Daya Bay.The results show that the uncertainties of the SGD estimate in the northeast bay are very sensitive to variations in excess radium inventories as well as radium inputs from bottom sediments,while the uncertainties of the SGD estimate for the entire bay are strongly affected by fluctuations in radium inputs from bottom sediments and radium end-members of SGD.This study will help to distinguish the key factors controlling the accuracy of SGD estimates in similar coastal waters.

Genesis, evolution and reservoir identification of a Neogene submarine channel in the southwestern Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea

A rarely reported middle-late Miocene-Pliocene channel(incised valley fill),the Huaguang Channel(HGC),has been found in the deep-water area of the southwestern Qiongdongnan Basin(QDNB).This channel is almost perpendicular to the orientation of another well-known,large,and nearly coeval submarine channel in this area.Based on the interpretation of high-resolution 3D seismic data,this study describes and analyzes the stratigraphy,tectonics,sedimentation,morphology,structure and evolution of HGC by means of well-seismic synthetic calibration,one-and two-dimensional forward modeling,attribute interpretation,tectonic interpretation,and gas detection.The HGC is located on the downthrown side of an earlier activated normal fault and grew northwestward along the fault strike.The channel is part of a slope that extends from the western Huaguang Sag to the eastern Beijiao Uplift.The HGC underwent four developmental stages:the(1)incubation(late Sanya Formation,20.4–15.5 Ma),(2)embryonic(Meishan Formation,15.5–10.5 Ma),(3)peak(Huangliu Formation,10.5–5.5 Ma)and(4)decline(Yinggehai Formation,5.5–1.9 Ma)stages.The channel sandstones have a provenance from the southern Yongle Uplift and filled the channel via multistage vertical amalgamation and lateral migration.The channel extended 42.5 km in an approximately straight pattern in the peak stage.At 10.5 Ma,sea level fell relative to its lowest level,and three oblique progradation turbidite sand bodies filled the channel from south to north.A channel sandstone isopach map demonstrated a narrow distribution in the early stages and a fan-shaped distribution in the late stage.The formation and evolution of the HGC were controlled mainly by background tectonics,fault strike,relative sea level change,and mass supply from the Yongle Uplift.The HGC sandstone reservoir is near the Huaguangjiao Sag,where hydrocarbons were generated.Channel-bounding faults and underlying faults link the source rock with the reservoir.A regionally extensive mudstone caprock overlies the channel sandstone.Two traps likely containing gas were recognized in a structural high upstream of the channel from seismic attenuation anomalies.The HGC will likely become an important oil and gas accumulation setting in the QDNB deep-water area.

Origin of submarine canyon-channel systems along the middle segment of West Mariana Ridge,Philippine Sea

Submarine canyon-channel systems have been documented in the Parece Vela Basin,West Mariana Ridge;however,the mechanism of the formation and controlling factors remain poorly understood.Based on high-resolution multibeam bathymetric data and two-dimensional(2D)seismic profiles,we identified and mapped the submarine canyon-channel system along the middle segment of West Mariana Ridge in the Philippine Sea.These submarine canyon-channels show a main W-E orientation at depth of 2000–4500 m.They are approximately 72–128 km in length and 1.3–15 km in width,and their canyon heads are adjacent to the seamounts with several branches.The upper reaches of submarine canyon-channels are characterized by deeply incised,narrow,V-shaped thalwegs,suggesting the powerful erosion of gravity flows.The distinguished sediment waves are suggested to be resulted from the interaction of turbidity currents and seafloor.Our observations demonstrate that gravity flows originated from the collapses of seamount flanks plays a vital role in developing the submarine canyonchannel system along the West Mariana Ridge.This work provides better understanding of erosion,transport,and deposition of sediments from subducting ridges to deep-water basins,and also new insights into the origin and evolution of submarine canyon-channel systems along subducting ridges.

Quantitative estimation of bubble volume fraction of submarine seep plumes by modeling seismic oceanography data

Submarine seep plumes are a natural phenomenon in which different types of gases migrate through deep or shallow subsurface sediments and leak into seawater in pressure gradient.When detected using acoustic data,the leaked gases frequently exhibit a flame-like structure.We numerically modelled the relationship between the seismic response characteristic and bubble volume fraction to establish the bubble volume fraction in the submarine seep plume.Results show that our models are able to invert and predict the bubble volume fraction from field seismic oceanography data,by which synthetic seismic sections in different dominant frequencies could be numerically simulated,seismic attribute sections(e.g.,instantaneous amplitude,instantaneous frequency,and instantaneous phase)extracted,and the correlation between the seismic attributes and bubble volume fraction be quantitatively determined with functional equations.The instantaneous amplitude is positively correlated with bubble volume fraction,while the instantaneous frequency and bubble volume fraction are negatively correlated.In addition,information entropy is introduced as a proxy to quantify the relationship between the instantaneous phase and bubble volume fraction.As the bubble volume fraction increases,the information entropy of the instantaneous phase increases rapidly at the beginning,followed by a slight upward trend,and finally stabilizes.Therefore,under optimal noise conditions,the bubble volume fraction of submarine seep plumes can be inverted and predicted based on seismic response characteristics in terms of seismic attributes.

Theoretical and Numerical Studies on the Coupling Deformation of Global Lateral Buckling and Walking of Submarine Pipeline

Buckling initiation devices/techniques,including sleepers,distributed buoyancy,snake lay,and residual curvature method(RCM),have recently been widely applied in engineering.These initiated buckles may induce a long pipeline to transform into multiple short pipeline segments,which promote the occurrence of pipeline walking.Thus,a pipeline,which is designed to buckle laterally,may laterally and axially displace over time when subjected to repeated heating and cooling cycles.This study aims to reveal the coupling mechanism of pipeline walking and global lateral buckling.First,an analytic solution is proposed to estimate the walking of pipeline segments between two adjacent buckles.Then,the sensitivity of this method to heating and cooling cycles is analyzed.Results show the applicability of the proposed walking analytical solution of buckling pipelines.Subsequently,an influence analysis of walking on global buckling,including the capacity of buckling initiation,buckling amplitude,buckling mode,and failure assessment of the buckling pipeline,is performed.The results reveal that the effect of walking on the buckling axial force is negligible.However,pipeline walking will aggravate the asymmetry of the pipeline buckling and the failure parameters of the pipeline during the post-buckling.

Vortex-Induced Vibration Response Features of A Submarine Multi-Span Pipeline via Towing Tank Experimental Tests

In offshore engineering, the phenomenon of free span often occurs, and the pipeline may have multiple free spans adjacent to each other, forming a multi-span pipeline. The interaction of different spans makes the structural vibration characteristics more complex, which may change the fatigue characteristics of the pipeline and affect the safety of the structure. In this paper, model tests were designed to explore the vortex-induced vibration(VIV) characteristics of multi-span pipelines and investigate the multi-span interaction mechanism. The experimental study mainly focused on the dynamic response of double-span pipelines, and further extended to triple-span pipelines, hoping that the results can be applied to more complex environment. The effects of span-length ratio, buried depth and axial force on VIV of the pipeline were investigated and discussed. The dynamic response of the pipeline varied with the span length. There was obvious interaction between different spans of multi-span pipelines, and the pipe-sediment interaction obviously affected the vibration characteristics of pipeline. The differences of pipeline burial depth and axial force changed the structural stiffness. With the increase of buried depth, the response amplitude presented a downward trend. The spanwise evolutions were asymmetric caused by the pipe-sediment interaction and multi-span interaction. The results can help to identify multi-span pipelines in engineering, and realize the prevention and control of free spans.

Distinguishing the main components of submarine groundwater and estimating the corresponding fluxes based on radium tracing method—taking the Maowei Sea for example

Submarine groundwater discharge(SGD)is an important part in the land-sea interactions,which mainly contains three components:submarine fresh groundwater discharge(SFGD),tidal flat recirculated saline groundwater discharge(tidal flat RSGD)and subtidal recirculated saline groundwater discharge(subtidal RSGD).In order to make a more accurate assessment of the impact of SGD on coastal ecological environment,it is necessary to distinguish the main components of SGD.In this study,the Maowei Sea,located in the northern part of the Beibu Gulf,was selected as the study area.Based on the radium(Ra)tracing method,we present a new analytical method for distinguishing the three main components of SGD in this area combined with field data.The average daily flow along the coastline of the Maowei Sea of tidal flat RSGD was slightly higher than that of SFGD,and both two were on the magnitude of 1×10^(5)m^(3)/d.The average daily flow for the subtidal RSGD of the entire subtidal zone of the Maowei Sea reached to the magnitude of 1×10^(6)-1×10^(7)m^(3)/d.The long-term variation trend of terrestrial SGD is a valuable information for the study of the influence of terrigenous material on the coastal ecological environment.Based on the results of four sampling periods,it is found that the fluxes of SFGD and tidal flat RSGD in the Maowei Sea had good linear correlation with the net precipitation.As an example,January 2015 to August 2022 were selected as the study periods,and the variation trends of SFGD and tidal flat RSGD were calculated by linear function with net precipitation as the independent variable.The results showed that the flux of tidal flat RSGD was slightly higher than that of SFGD,and the difference between the two is larger in flood season while smaller in dry season.In general,in the coastal range of China,the total SGD flux in the Maowei Sea area is at a high level,and the SFGD flux is at a medium level.

Submarine groundwater discharge and seasonal hypoxia off the Changjiang River Estuary

Hypoxia is a common phenomenon in the sea adjacent to the Changjiang River Estuary(CJE),one of the global major estuaries.Submarine groundwater discharge(SGD)is a widely recognized pathway for terrestrial materials entering the sea,and has been found to be significant off the CJE.We used a^(222)Rn mass balance model to estimate the SGD fluxes off the CJE and showed that it is linked to seasonal dissolved oxygen(DO)variations.Average SGD fluxes were estimated to be(0.012±0.010)m^(3)/(m^(2)·d)in winter,(0.034±0.015)m^(3)/(m^(2)·d)in summer,and(0.020±0.010)m^(3)/(m^(2)·d)in autumn.We found a significant negative correlation between DO concentrations and SGD rates with groundwater discharge being highest in the summer flood season.In addition,distribution patterns of SGD and hypoxia zones in summer are spatially overlapped,indicating that SGD is an important contributor to summer hypoxia in this region.

Using radium isotopes to quantify submarine groundwater discharge at different scales in the Huanghe River Estuary,China

As an important land-ocean interaction process,submarine groundwater discharge(SGD)is composed of multiple dynamical processes at different scales and plays an important role in the study of coastal ocean geochemical budgets.However,most of the existing studies focus on the quantification of the total groundwater discharge,few studies are about the differentiation and quantification of groundwater discharge processes at different scales(i.e.,short-scale SGD and long-scale SGD).As a world-class river,the Huanghe River is highly turbid and heavily regulated by humans.These natural and anthropogenic factors have a significant impact on groundwater discharge processes in the Huanghe River Estuary(HRE).In this study,the distribution patterns of the natural geochemical tracer radium isotopes(^(224)Ra and^(223)Ra)and other hydrological parameters in the HRE were investigated during four cruises.By solving the mass balance of^(224)Ra and^(223)Ra in the HRE,the long-scale SGD flux was quantified as 0.01−0.19 m/d,and the short-scale SGD flux was 0.03−0.04 m/d.The rate of short-scale SGD remained essentially constant among seasons,while the rate of long-scale SGD varied considerably at different periods and showed a synchronous trend with the variation of river discharge.The results of this study are significant for understanding the SGD dynamics in the HRE and the contribution of SGD to the ocean geochemical budgets.

Research on Electromagnetic Loss Characteristics of Submarine Cables

The electromagnetic losses of submarine cables are mainly caused by the metal shielding layer to prevent the water tree effect and the armor layer that strengthens the strength of the submarine cables.While these losses cause the temperature of submarine cable to rise,and temperature variation will in turn change the conductivity of its metal layer material.In this paper,the electric-magnetic-thermal multi-physical field coupling of the electromagnetic loss variation of the submarine cable is realized by establishing a full coupling system containing Fourier’s law and Maxwell-Ampère’s Law for the photoelectric composite submarine cable.The multi-physical field coupling model is solved and analyzed by using the finite elementmethod.Firstly,the loss of each layer of the optoelectronic composite submarine cable is analyzed,and the lossof eachlayer of the submarine cable and themainfactors leading to the loss of the submarine cable are given.Secondly,the influence of environmental temperature,ampacity and armor layer on the electromagnetic loss of submarine cables is studied,and the main operating factors affecting the electromagnetic loss of submarine cables are summarized.The research shows that the influence of ambient temperature can be ignored,and the loss of shielding layer and armor layer increases with the increase of ampacity,but the impact of shielding layer loss is greater.Finally,this paper studies the electromagnetic loss of each metal layer of the submarine cable and the influence of the laying spacing on the electromagnetic loss.The research results show that the two ways of improving the conductivity of the armor layer and reducing the relative permeability of the armor layer can effectively reduce the loss of each metal layer in the cable structure and increase the current carrying capacity when the tensile strength of the armor layer meets the requirements for single-core and threecore photoelectric composite submarine cables laid horizontally.At the same time,increasing the laying spacing will increase the loss,but it can improve the overall current carrying capacity of the cable.The research in this paper provides a theoretical basis for the design of submarine cable carrying capacity,and also provides a reference for the optimization design of submarine cable structures.

An MPI parallel DEM-IMB-LBM framework for simulating fluid-solid interaction problems

The high-resolution DEM-IMB-LBM model can accurately describe pore-scale fluid-solid interactions,but its potential for use in geotechnical engineering analysis has not been fully unleashed due to its prohibitive computational costs.To overcome this limitation,a message passing interface(MPI)parallel DEM-IMB-LBM framework is proposed aimed at enhancing computation efficiency.This framework utilises a static domain decomposition scheme,with the entire computation domain being decomposed into multiple subdomains according to predefined processors.A detailed parallel strategy is employed for both contact detection and hydrodynamic force calculation.In particular,a particle ID re-numbering scheme is proposed to handle particle transitions across sub-domain interfaces.Two benchmarks are conducted to validate the accuracy and overall performance of the proposed framework.Subsequently,the framework is applied to simulate scenarios involving multi-particle sedimentation and submarine landslides.The numerical examples effectively demonstrate the robustness and applicability of the MPI parallel DEM-IMB-LBM framework.

Platform Evolution in an Oligo-Miocene Back-arc Basin:An Example from the Central Iran Basin

The Qom Formation is the most important hydrocarbon reservoir target in Central Iran.The Qom platform developed in a back-arc basin during the Oligo-Miocene due to the closing of the Tethyan Seaway.This formation consists of a variety of carbonate and non-carbonate facies deposited on a platform ranging from supratidal to basin.A combination of tectonic and eustatic events led to some lateral and vertical facies variations in the study area.Six third-order depositional sequences and related surfaces were identified regarding vertical facies changes in the studied sections of this Oligo-Miocene succession.According to all results and data,this succession was initially deposited during the Chattian upon a distally steepened ramp of siliciclastic-carbonate composition,including the Bouma sequence.Then,from the late Chattian to the Aquitanian,the platform changed into a homoclinal carbonate ramp with a gentle profile.With respect to tectonic activity,this phase was a calm period during the deposition of the Qom Formation.Finally,a drowned carbonate platform and a rimmed shelf emerged during the Burdigalian,terminated by the continental deposits of the Upper Red Formation.Regarding all geological characteristics,three main tectono-eustatic evolutionary phases have been recognized in the Qom back-arcbasin.