Trend of Storm Surge Induced by Typical Landfall Super Typhoons During 1975–2021 in the Eastern China Sea

Climate change affects the activity of global and regional tropical cyclones(TCs).Among all TCs,typical super typhoons(STYs)are particularly devastating because they maintain their intensity when landing on the coast and thus cause casualties,economic losses,and environmental damage.Using a 3D tidal model,we reconstructed the typhoon(TY)wind field to simulate the storm surge induced by typical STYs.The TY activity was then analyzed using historical data.Results showed a downtrend of varying degrees in the annual frequency of STYs and TCs in the Western North Pacific(WNP)Basin,with a significant trend change observed for TCs from 1949 to 2021.A large difference in the interannual change in frequency was found between STYs and TCs in the WNP and Eastern China Sea(ECS).Along the coast of EC,the frequency of landfall TCs showed a weak downtrend,and the typical STYs showed reverse micro growth with peak activity in August.Zhejiang,Fujian,and Taiwan were highly vulnerable to the frontal hits of typical STYs.Affected by climate change,the average lifetime maximum intensity(LMI)locations and landfall locations of typical STYs in the ECS basin showed a significant poleward migration trend.In addition,the annual average LMI and accumulated cyclone energy showed an uptrend,indicating the increasing severity of the disaster risk.Affected by the typical STY activity in the ECS,the maximum storm surge area also showed poleward migration,and the coast of North China faced potential growth in high storm surge risks.

Atmospheric and oceanic responses to Super Typhoon Mangkhut in the South China Sea:a coupled CROCO-WRF simulation

The South China Sea(SCS)is the largest marginal sea in the Northwest Pacific Ocean,and it encounters frequent typhoons.The atmosphere and ocean will create significant thermal and dynamic responses during the intense disturbance caused by typhoons.However,these responses have not been thoroughly investigated owing to the complicated marine environment.According to the satellite data,the SCS Basin was observed to have a strong sea surface temperature(SST)response to Typhoon Mangkhut,resulting in widespread SST cooling.A coupled model was used to investigate the atmospheric and oceanic responses to Typhoon Mangkhut.Best-track data,satellite SST,and ARGO measurements show that the coupled WRF-CROCO simulation displays better track,intensity,SST,temperature,and salinity profiles than those of the WRF-only simulation.Results show that the typhoon induced rightward intensifications in wind speed,ocean current,and SST.The following are some remarkable atmosphere and ocean responses:(1)the SST below the inner-core region is cooled by 1℃,resulting in a 37%-44%decrease in wet enthalpy,and the central pressure is increased by~9 hPa.Therefore,the changes in SST below the innercore region of the SCS Basin have a significant impact on air-sea fluxes under high-wind conditions;(2)the ocean boundary layer analysis shows that near-inertial oscillations on the right side of the typhoon track and a strong inertial current up to~2.28 m/s in the upper ocean were observed,which resonated with the local wind and flow field on the right side and induced strong SST cooling;(3)a decrease in SST decreased the moist static energy of the typhoon boundary layer,thereby weakening the typhoon’s intensity.The difference in equivalent potential temperature and sea surface pressure have a good correlation,indicating that the influence of moist static energy on typhoon intensity cannot be overlooked.

Observational study of super typhoon Meranti (2016) using satellite, surface drifter, Argo float and reanalysis data

The present work describes the basic features of super typhoon Meranti(2016)by multiple data sources.We mainly focus on the upper ocean response to Meranti using multiplatform satellites,in situ surface drifter and Argo floats,and compare the results with the widely used idealized wind vortex model and reanalysis datasets.The pre-existing meso-scale eddy provided a favor underlying surface boundary condition and also modulated the upper ocean response to Meranti.Results show that the maximum sea surface cooling was 2.0℃after Meranti.The satellite surface wind failed to capture the core structure of Meranti as the idealized wind vortex model deduced.According to the observation of sea surface drifters,the near-inertial currents were significantly enhanced during the passage of Meranti.The temperature and salinity profiles from Argo floats revealed both the mixed-layer extension and subsurface upwelling induced by Meranti.The comparison results show that the sea surface temperature and surface wind in the reanalysis datasets differs from those in remote sensing system.Sea surface cooling is similar in both satellite and in situ observation,and sea surface salinity response has a lower correlation with the precipitation rate.

Numerical Investigation of High Tide Level Due to A Super Typhoon in A Coastal Region

A numerical model of the coupling between astronomical tide and storm surge based on Mike 21 is applied to the coastal regions of Zhejiang Province.The model is used to simulate high tide levels combined with storm surge during 5 typhoons,including two super typhoons,that landed in the Province.In the model,the atmospheric forcing fields are calculated with parametric wind and pressure models.The computational results,with average computed errors of 13 cm for the high astronomical tide levels and 20 cm for the high storm-tide levels,show that the model yields good simulations.Typhoon No.5612,the most intense to land in China since 1949,is taken as the typical super typhoon for the design of 5 typhoon routes,each landing at a different location along the coast.The possible extreme storm-tide levels along the coast are calculated by the model under the conditions of the 5 designed typhoon routes when they coincide with the spring tide.Results are compared with the high storm-tide levels due to the increase of the central atmospheric pressure at the base of a typical super typhoon,the change of tidal type,and the behavior of a Saomai-type typhoon.The results have practical significance for forecasting and minimization of damage during super typhoons.

Super Typhoon Activity over the Western North Pacific and Its Relationship with ENSO

This paper analyzes the characteristics of super typhoons(STYs)over the western North Pacific(WNP)from 1965 to2005 and describes the seasonal variability of STY activity.The relation between STY activity and the El Nio-Southern Oscillation(ENSO)as well as the possible reason for the influence of the ENSO on STY activity are also investigated.The results showed thatabout one fifth of the tropical cyclones(TCs)over the WNP could reach the rank of STY.Most STYs appeared from July to Novem-ber while there was a highest ratio between number of STYs and total number of TCs in November.Most STYs appeared east of thePhilippine Sea.In El Nio years,affected by sea surface temperature(SST),monsoon trough and weak vertical wind shear,TC for-mation locations shifted eastward and there were more STYs than in La Nia years when the affecting factors changed.

SATELLITE-BASED ANALYSIS ON THE CONCENTRIC EYEWALL REPLACEMENT CYCLES OF SUPER TYPHOON MUIFA (1109)

Multisatellite data is used to analyze the characteristics of three eyewall replacement cycles(ERCs) during the lifetime of Typhoon Muifa(1109).Spiral rainbands evolutions,concentric eyewall(CE) structure modes,CE durations,and intensity changes are discussed in detail.In addition,an ERC evolution model of Typhoon Muifa is given.There are four main findings.(1) The outer spiral rainband joins end to end to form the outer eyewall after it disconnects from the original(inner) eyewall.The inner eyewall weakens as the outer eyewall becomes axisymmetric and is intensified.The contraction of the outer eyewall causes the inner eyewall to dissipate rapidly.Finally,the ERC ends with an annular eyewall or spiral rainbands.(2) Although the CE duration times of Typhoon Muifa's three ERCs covered a large range,the CE structures were all maintained for approximately 5 h from the formation of the axisymmetric outer eyewall to the end of the cycle.(3) There is no obvious precipitation reflectivity in the eye or moat region for the subsidence flow.The convection within the two eyewalls is organized as a radially outward slope with increasing height.(4) Typhoon intensity estimation results based on ADT may not explain the intensity variations associated with ERC correctly,while the typhoon's warm core data retrieved from AMSU-A works well.

Validation of Doppler Wind Lidar during Super Typhoon Lekima (2019)

This study undertook verification of the applicability and accuracy of wind data measured using a WindCube V2 Doppler Wind Lidar(DWL).The data were collected as part of a field experiment in Zhoushan,Zhejiang Province(China),which was conducted by Shanghai Typhoon Institute of China Meteorological Administration during the passage of Super Typhoon Lekima(2019).The DWL measurements were compared with balloon-borne GPS radiosonde(GPS sonde)data,which were acquired using balloons launched from the DWL location.Results showed that wind speed measured by GPS sonde at heights of<100 m is unreliable owing to the drift effect.Optimal agreement(at heights of>100 m)was found for DWL-measured wind speed time-averaged during the ascent of the GPS sonde from the ground surface to the height of 270 m(correlation coefficient:0.82;root mean square(RMS):2.19 m·h^(-1)).Analysis revealed that precipitation intensity(PI)exerts considerable influence on both the carrier-to-noise ratio and the rate of missing DWL data;however,PI has minimal effect on the wind speed bias of DWL measurements.Specifically,the rate of missing DWL data increased with increasing measurement height and PI.For PI classed as heavy rain or less(PI<12 mm·h^(-1)),the DWL data below 300 m were considered valid,whereas for PI classed as a severe rainstorm(PI>90 m·h^(-1)),only data below 100 m were valid.Up to the height of 300 m,the RMS of the DWL measurements was nearly half that of wind profile radar(WPR)estimates(4.32 m·s^(-1)),indicating that DWL wind data are more accurate than WPR data under typhoon conditions.

Impact of physical representations in CALMET on the simulated wind field over land during Super Typhoon Meranti(2016)

A WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting Model)/CALMET(California Meteorological Model)coupled system is used to investigate the impact of physical representations in CALMET on simulations of the near-surface wind field of Super Typhoon Meranti(2016).The coupled system is configured with a horizontal grid spacing of 3 km in WRF and 500 m in CALMET,respectively.The model performance of the coupled WRF/CALMET system is evaluated by comparing the results of simulations with observational data from 981 automatic surface stations in Fujian Province.The root mean square error(RMSE)of the wind speed at 10 m in all CALMET simulations is significantly less than the WRF simulation by 20%^30%,suggesting that the coupled WRF/CALMET system is capable of representing more realistic simulated wind speed than the mesoscale model only.The impacts of three physical representations including blocking effects,kinematic effects of terrain and slope flows in CALMET are examined in a specified local region called Shishe Mountain.The results show that before the typhoon landfall in Xiamen,a net downslope flow that is tangent to the terrain is generated in the west of Shishe Mountain due to blocking effects with magnitude exceeding 10 m/s.However,the blocking effects seem to take no effect in the strong wind area after typhoon landfall.Whether being affected by the typhoon strong wind or not,the slope flows move downslope at night and upslope in the daytime due to the diurnal variability of the local heat flux with magnitude smaller than 3 m/s.The kinematic effects of terrain,which are speculated to play a significant role in the typhoon strong wind area,can only be applied to atmospheric flows in stable conditions when the wind field is quasinondivergent.

The lightning activities in super typhoons over the Northwest Pacific

The spatial and temporal characteristics of lightning activities have been studied in seven super typhoons from 2005 to 2008 over the Northwest Pacific, using data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN). The results indicated that there were three distinct lightning flash regions in mature typhoon, a significant maximum in the eyewall regions (20-80 km from the center), a minimum from 80-200 km, and a strong maximum in the outer rainbands (out of 200 km from the center). The lightning flashes in the outer rainbands were much more than those in the inner rainbands, and less than 1% of flashes occurred within 100 km of the center. Each typhoon produced eyewall lightning outbreak during the periods of its intensification, usually several hours prior to its maximum intensity, indicating that lightning activity might be used as a proxy of intensification of super typhoon. Little lightning occurred near the center after landing of the typhoon.

Lightning Activity and Its Relationship with Typhoon Intensity and Vertical Wind Shear for Super Typhoon Haiyan (1330)

Super Typhoon Haiyan(1330), which occurred in 2013, is the most powerful typhoon during landfall in the meteorological record. In this study, the temporal and spatial distributions of lightning activity of Haiyan were analyzed by using the lightning data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network,typhoon intensity and position data from the China Meteorological Administration, and horizontal wind data from the ECMWF. Three distinct regions were identified in the spatial distribution of daily average lightning density, with the maxima in the inner core and the minima in the inner rainband. The lightning density in the intensifying stage of Haiyan was greater than that in its weakening stage. During the time when the typhoon intensity measured with maximum sustained wind speed was between 32.7 and 41.4 m s-1, the storm had the largest lightning density in the inner core, compared with other intensity stages.In contrast to earlier typhoon studies, the eyewall lightning burst out three times. The first two eyewall lightning outbreaks occurred during the period of rapid intensification and before the maximum intensity of the storm, suggesting that the eyewall lightning activity could be used to identify the change in tropical cyclone intensity. The flashes frequently occurred in the inner core, and in the outer rainbands with the black body temperature below 220 K. Combined with the ECMWF wind data, the influences of vertical wind shear(VWS) on the azimuthal distribution of flashes were also analyzed, showing that strong VWS produced downshear left asymmetry of lightning activity in the inner core and downshear right asymmetry in the rainbands.

Track of Super Typhoon Haiyan Predicted by a Typhoon Model for the South China Sea

Super Typhoon Haiyan was the most notable typhoon in 2013. In this study, results from the operational prediction of Haiyan by a tropical regional typhoon model for the South China Sea are analyzed. It is shown that the model has successfully reproduced Haiyan's rapid passage through the Philippines and its northward deflection after its second landfall in Vietnam. However, the predicted intensity of Haiyan is weaker than the observed. An analysis of higher-resolution model simulations indicates that the storm is characterized by an upper-level warm core during its mature stage and a deep layer of easterly flow. Sensitivity experiments are conducted to study the impact of certain physical processes such as the interaction between stratus and cumulus clouds on the improvement of the typhoon intensity forecast. It is found that appropriate boundary layer and cumulus convective parameterizations, and orographic gravity-wave parameterization, as well as improved initial conditions and increased horizontal grid resolution, all help to improve the intensity forecast of Haiyan.

Detecting Intensity Evolution of the Western North Pacific Super Typhoons in 2016 Using the Deviation Angle Variance Technique with FY Data

This paper analyzes the complete lifecycle of super typhoons in 2016 in the western North Pacific(WNP) using the deviation angle variance technique(DAV-T). Based on the infrared images from Fengyun(FY) satellites, the DAV-T enables quantification of the axisymmetry of tropical cyclones(TCs) by using the DAV values; and thus, it helps improve the capability of TC intensity estimation. Case analyses of Super Typhoons Lionrock and Meranti were performed to explore the distribution characteristics of the DAV values at the various stages of TC evolution. The results show that the minimum DAV values(i.e., map minimum values: MMVs) gradually decreased and their locations constantly approached the circulation center with enhancement of the TC organization; however, when a ring or disk structure was formed around a TC, significant changes in MMV locations were no longer observed. Nonetheless,when large-scale non-closed deep convective cloud clusters appeared at the early stage or the dissipation stage of the typhoon, the axisymmetry of the TC was poor and the MMV locations tended to lie in the most convective region rather than in the TC circulation center. Overall, the MMVs and their locations, respectively, exhibited a strong correlation with the TC intensity and circulation center, and the correlation increased as the TCs became stronger. Combined with the China Meteorological Administration BestTrack dataset(CMA-BestTrack), statistical analysis of all research samples reveals that the correlation coefficient between the MMVs and maximum surface wind speeds(Vmax) was –0.80; the root mean square error(RMSE) of relative distance between the MMV locations and TC centers was 140.3 km; and especially, when the samples below the tropical depression(TD) intensity were removed, the RMSE of the relative distance decreased dramatically to 95.0 km. The value and location of the MMVs could be used as important indicators for estimating TC intensity and center.

河南2023年麦收期连阴雨极端特征及预报偏差分析

基于多尺度观测资料、多种数值模式和主观预报产品,分析了2023年河南麦收关键期出现的连续降水天气过程的极端性特征,并对主客观预报进行检验评估。结果表明:5月20日至6月4日累计降水量距平百分率全省平均为170.3%,累计雨量有17个站达到历史同期排名第一;5月25日至6月4日出现长达11天的全省范围的连阴雨过程,历史排名第二。2023年5月2530日500 hPa平均场副高西伸脊点较气候态偏西33个经度以上,河南上空高度场较气候态高出160~200 gpm。中层气流变化导致降水系统移动方向发生变化,是豫西强降水漏报的主要原因;模式对台风和副高位置预报的偏差,是导致雨带向南偏差的直接原因,进而导致各数值模式暴雨以上量级降水评分偏低。豫西地形对风场影响的机理较为复杂,需对更多个例诊断分析,得到客观结论。

沿海地区超强台风作用下核电塔机抗风性能分析

基于GB/T 13752—2017《塔式起重机设计规范》确定了超强台风作用下QTP300(7526B)型核电塔机的风荷载及其荷载组合方式,并考虑风荷载的不同加载方式(立面加载和平面加载),对核电塔机非工作状态下的抗风性能进行了有限元静力分析。结果表明:与将风荷载分配到有限元模型的所有节点上相比,选取指定节点施加风荷载所得到的结果更大,表明在风荷载应加载到所有立面节点上;迎风面构件对背风面构件的挡风作用对塔机结构的应力分布及最大应力均无显著影响,而塔机结构的最大位移则随挡风作用的增强而增大,表明风荷载加载应考虑迎风面构件的挡风作用;塔机整机结构最大应力出现在底部主肢构件上,其大小均小于钢材的允许应力,该型号核电塔机可以承受17级超强台风作用。

2023年河南麦收连阴雨的形成和环流异常分析

2023年5月25—30日河南遭遇了1961年以来同期持续时间最长、影响最大的连阴雨天气过程。连阴雨天气导致小麦大幅减产,品质下降,豫南、豫中和豫东部分种子田失去种用价值,被评为“烂场雨”。利用常规观测资料、NCEP再分析资料和EC数值预报产品,对这次连阴雨过程的大尺度环流形势和影响系统进行分析。结果表明:(1)该天气过程发生在异常大气环流背景下,西太平洋副热带高压显著偏强,脊线5天滑动平均位置偏北达8个纬度,越过25°N线;西伯利亚高压也显著偏强且频繁向南暴发。(2)乌拉尔山阻塞系统的形成导致我国新疆西北部长时间维持一深厚冷涡,从而在35°—40°N形成了稳定纬向环流,冷涡底部不断有冷空气分裂东移南下影响河南。远距离超强台风的逼近导致副热带高压迅速西伸北抬,在其外围形成了一条宽广、深厚的从南海伸向中纬度地区的暖湿气流输送带,最终在豫西北汇聚出低空急流。随着暖湿气流输送带向北扩展,在大风速区的前方,对流层中低部有明显的空气质量和水汽的辐合,从而引发上升运动的发生发展,导致多地暴雨、局部大暴雨的出现。(3)南北两个异常的天气系统的结合,促成了中纬度能量锋区的稳定维持,锋面抬升对暖区降水起到增幅和维持作用。(4)数值模式对中、短期环流趋势和影响系统均作出了较准确的预报,但对降水量级及其分布的预测还需要进一步推敲订正。

基于Argo数据研究南海上层海洋对超强台风“威马逊”(2014)的温盐响应

利用Argo浮标观测数据并结合卫星遥感及锚定浮标观测资料,对2014年超强台风“威马逊”引起的上层海洋温盐响应进行了分析和研究。结果显示,超强台风“威马逊”过境时会造成海表面温度冷却和混合层加深。通过计算混合长度和台风引起的垂向流速变化解释了次表层温度变化的原因:强混合作用和弱上升流作用致使次表层增温,反之次表层冷却。相比于温度的变化,盐度的响应更为复杂,台风引起的降水会先导致表层盐度降低,随后垂向混合引起表层盐度大幅增加,但是降水的作用能够极大地抑制这一过程;台风离境后,垂向混合减弱,强降水引起盐度大幅降低,甚至会使盐度低于台风过境前。

基于海气耦合模式的超强台风“山竹”数值模拟

基于中尺度大气模式WRF和区域海洋模式ROMS,构建WRF-ROMS海气双向耦合模式,针对2018年超强台风“山竹”进行模拟。利用观测数据对台风路径和强度进行验证,结果表明海气耦合模式对台风“山竹”的模拟相对单一模式有更高的精度,耦合模式得到的台风路径与最佳路径吻合良好,误差控制在60 km以内;获取的风速和海平面气压结果也较单一模式更为准确。基于海气耦合模拟结果,进一步分析台风作用下风场、气压场、海表流场和风暴增水的时空分布特征,结果表明:1)空间分布方面,台风进入南海后,七级风圈半径在台风沿路径右后方较大;气旋式流场与台风风场呈现出显著的埃克曼效应,流向与风向呈45°;风场、气压场、风生流场和增水分布均存在明显的不对称性,台风路径右侧的台风强度、流速和增水均大于左侧。2)时间分布方面,风场与气压场分布特征相似且与台风中心保持同步,流场和近岸风暴增水相对台风路径存在3 h左右的滞后。

超强台风“山竹”(1822)的闪电活动特征

为了进一步认识热带气旋(TC)全生命期中闪电的活动特征,本文利用全球闪电定位网(WWLLN)资料、中央气象台的TC路径数据、风云四号A星(FY-4A)的相当黑体温度(TBB)数据和ERA5再分析资料,研究了2018年登陆中国的最强台风“山竹”从生成到消亡全生命期中闪电活动的时空分布和随强度的变化特征,探讨了闪电活动与风圈半径及下垫面的关系。结果表明:(1)“山竹”中的闪电活动有明显的三圈结构,内核闪电密度最大,内雨带几乎没有闪电,外雨带闪电数量最多。内核闪电与外雨带闪电的主要发生时间不同,外雨带在远海也能产生大量闪电。(2)闪电活动的方位分布与TC强度、所处地理位置及环境密切相关,不同时期闪电方位分布不同。(3)闪电活动与风圈半径没有明确的关系,闪电活动多发于风圈半径较小的东南和西南方位。(4)TC快速增强期间及前后,内核闪电活动对TC强度增强具有一定的指示作用。此外,内核闪电活动与对流强度呈现较好的相关性。(5)岛屿和陆地的存在对于强对流的发展有着极重要的作用。气流遇到较高地形被迫抬升,形成闪电。TC西南方位距岛屿东南侧约300 km的海面,水汽、热量充足且人为气溶胶较多,有利于上升气流的发展,进而产生闪电。这些认识有助于闪电资料在TC中小尺度强对流监测和预警中的应用。

1640—1949年影响江浙沪地区超强台风序列的重建

超强台风是影响我国沿海地区最严重的自然灾害之一。依托现代台风研究成果,利用地方志、档案、报刊等资料,归纳风力程度、人口死亡、房屋损坏、农作物损失、官民赈济以及影响范围6个指标,建立历史时期超强台风的识别方法,重建1640—1949年影响我国江浙沪地区的超强台风序列,并以1950—2019年的现代超强台风序列为参照进行统计检验,结果表明此方法能较好识别历史时期的超强台风事件。重建序列显示平均每10年发生2—3次超强台风,且存在明显波动,波动趋势与一般台风有所不同。

超强台风利奇马(1909)期间海洋中尺度冷涡特征分析

对超强台风“利奇马”期间西北太平洋海表面高度异常(SLA)特征及台风移动路径附近中尺度冷涡特征进行了分析,结果表明:“利奇马”过境前后,西北太平洋SLA以正值为主,闭合SLA负值区C1负异常数值减小、范围扩大,C2变化不明显;“利奇马”以6.4~10.8 km/h移速横穿中尺度冷涡CE1,并向西北方向移动,移出前后CE1强度、范围加强(SLA极值为-19.6 cm);以13.9~20.4 km/h快速从CE2以东海域移过,过境前后CE2强度、范围变化不明显;CE1、CE2位于“利奇马”强迫区域内,“利奇马”对CE1影响时间长(18~42 h),使得CE1范围增大、强度增强,对CE2影响则不明显。