Distribution of calcium, nickel, iron, and manganese in super-heavy oil from Liaohe Oilfield, China

Liaohe super-heavy crude oil was separated into its components, namely saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes （SARA）, by the group separation method. Several solvents were used to extract different forms of metallic elements from crude oil. The metallic elements, such as calcium, nickel, iron and manganese, in crude oil, SARA and extract samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy （ICP-AES）. The results demonstrate that the contents of calcium, nickel, iron, and manganese gradually increase in saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes, suggesting that the abundance of the four metallic elements in asphaltenes is much higher than that in the other groups. For example, the content of calcium in asphaltenes reaches a maximum of 7,920 pg/g. Among the SARA components of Liaohe super-heavy crude oil, resins account for more than 50 wt%, suggesting that the total amount of the four metallic elements are higher in the resin component than in other components. The four metallic elements mainly exist in the form of organic metallic compounds in crude oil. Further analysis shows that calcium and manganese elements exist mainly as metal salts of petroleum acids, and the majority of the iron and all the nickel exist mainly as metalloporphyrin and non-metalloporphyrin compounds.

Identification of petroleum acids in Liaohe super-heavy oil

In this study, petroleum acids were extracted from the super-heavy oil of Liaohe oilfield, North-east China, by using acetic acid, and their structural components and properties were investigated by using FT-IR and MS. Moreover, the trace metal contents in the super-heavy oil sample before and after acetic acid treatment were also measured in this work. The results showed that naphthenic acids were the main component of petroleum acids in Liaohe super-heavy oil, and the content of naphthenic acids with double rings was higher than that of other naphthenic acids. It can be concluded that petroleum acids in Liaohe super-heavy oil mainly consist of naphthenic acids, with a carbon number of around 11–69 and containing one to six naphthenic rings and/or one to two aromatic rings, and mainly exists in form of metal salts of petroleum acid. The molecular weight of petroleum acids is in the range of 190–1000.

A review of SAGD technology development and its possible application potential on thin-layer super-heavy oil reservoirs

Super-heavy oil is a significant unconventional energy source,and more than 30 years of research have shown that steam-assisted gravity drainage(SAGD)technology is suitable for thick super-heavy oil reservoirs.Recently,more and more thin-layer super-heavy oil reservoirs have been discovered in China,while their deep buried depth and serous heterogeneity make the existing SAGD technology difficult to apply,so it is urgent to improve the existing SAGD technology for the thin-layer super-heavy oil.To this end,this paper focuses on the enlightenment of field application in SAGD technology.Firstly,based on typical SAGD field projects,the development history of SAGD technology in the world was reviewed,and the influence of reservoir physical properties on the application of SAGD technology in thin-layer superheavy oil reservoirs was analyzed.Secondly,the well pattern,wellbore structure,pre-heating,artificial lift,and monitor technique of SAGD were detailed described,and their adjustment direction was expounded for the development of thin-layer super-heavy oil reservoirs.Lastly,the gas-and solventassistant SAGD were comprehensively evaluated,and their application potential in thin-layer superheavy oil reservoirs was studied.The research results can provide theoretical guidance for the application of SAGD technology in thin-layer super-heavy oil reservoirs.

Liaohe Planning to Build One Million Tonsof Super-Heavy Oil Production Base

WiththepriceincreaseofPetroleumProductsintheinternationalmarketandthematurity'oftechnologyfortheproductionofsuper-heavyoil,LiaohehasestablishedaframeworkplanfortheconstructionofproductioncapacityforBlockDu-32.AproduchonbasewadanannualoutputofImillion...

Air-SAGD technology for super-heavy oil reservoirs

The air oxidation of super-heavy oil at low temperature was studied in laboratory and its influences on oil viscosity, component and steam sweep efficiency before and after air-injection were analyzed. The feasibility, operation mode and air flooding effect at the late stage of steam assisted gravity drainage(SAGD) were investigated by numerical simulation. The experimental results show for vertical-horizontal well pair SAGD test area of Xing VI Formation in Block Du 84 of Liaohe Oilfield, the low temperature oxidation occurred between 150-250 ?C(steam chamber temperature), the oil viscosity increased greatly after low temperature oxidation, consequently, the oil displacement efficiency dropped sharply. Three development methods in the late stage of SAGD were simulated, i.e., steam + air low temperature oxidation, only air low temperature oxidation and only air high temperature oxidation. By comparing production dynamic curves and residual oil distribution etc., high temperature oxidation reduced the heat loss in late stage of SAGD, recovered the residual oil effectively, and prolonged reservoir development time.

Geochemical characteristics and exploration significance of ultra-deep Sinian oil and gas from Well Tashen 5,Tarim Basin,NW China

The Well Tashen 5(TS5),drilled and completed at a vertical depth of 9017 m in the Tabei Uplift of the Tarim Basin,NW China,is the deepest well in Asia.It has been producing both oil and gas from the Sinian at a depth of 8780e8840 m,also the deepest in Asia in terms of oil discovery.In this paper,the geochemical characteristics of Sinian oil and gas from the well were investigated and compared with those of Cambrian oil and gas discovered in the same basin.The oil samples,with Pr/Ph ratio of 0.78 and a whole oil carbon isotopic value of31.6‰,have geochemical characteristics similar to those of Ordovician oils from the No.1 fault in the North Shuntuoguole area(also named Shunbei area)and the Middle Cambrian oil from wells Zhongshen 1(ZS1)and Zhongshen 5(ZS5)of Tazhong Uplift.The maturity of light hydrocarbons,diamondoids and aromatic fractions all suggest an approximate maturity of 1.5%e1.7%Ro for the samples.The(4-+3-)methyldiamantane concentration of the samples is 113.5 mg/g,indicating intense cracking with a cracking degree of about 80%,which is consistent with the high bottom hole temperature(179℃).The Sinian gas samples are dry with a dryness coefficient of 0.97.The gas is a mixture of kerogen-cracking gas and oil-cracking gas and has Ro values ranging between 1.5%and 1.7%,and methane carbon isotopic values of41.6‰.Based on the equivalent vitrinite reflectance(R_(eqv)=1.51%e1.61%)and the thermal evolution of source rocks from the Cambrian Yu'ertusi Formation of the same well,it is proposed that the Sinian oil and gas be mainly sourced from the Cambrian Yu'ertusi Formation during the Himalayan period but probably also be joined by hydrocarbon of higher maturity that migrated from other source rocks in deeper formations.The discovery of Sinian oil and gas from Well TS5 suggests that the ancient ultra-deep strata in the northern Tarim Basin have the potential for finding volatile oil or condensate reservoirs.

Synergistic anionic/zwitterionic mixed surfactant system with high emulsification efficiency for enhanced oil recovery in low permeability reservoirs

Emulsification is one of the important mechanisms of surfactant flooding. To improve oil recovery for low permeability reservoirs, a highly efficient emulsification oil flooding system consisting of anionic surfactant sodium alkyl glucosyl hydroxypropyl sulfonate(APGSHS) and zwitterionic surfactant octadecyl betaine(BS-18) is proposed. The performance of APGSHS/BS-18 mixed surfactant system was evaluated in terms of interfacial tension, emulsification capability, emulsion size and distribution, wettability alteration, temperature-resistance and salt-resistance. The emulsification speed was used to evaluate the emulsification ability of surfactant systems, and the results show that mixed surfactant systems can completely emulsify the crude oil into emulsions droplets even under low energy conditions. Meanwhile,the system exhibits good temperature and salt resistance. Finally, the best oil recovery of 25.45% is achieved for low permeability core by the mixed surfactant system with a total concentration of 0.3 wt%while the molar ratio of APGSHS:BS-18 is 4:6. The current study indicates that the anionic/zwitterionic mixed surfactant system can improve the oil flooding efficiency and is potential candidate for application in low permeability reservoirs.

Quantification of the adulteration concentration of palm kernel oil in virgin coconut oil using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging

The adulteration concentration of palm kernel oil(PKO)in virgin coconut oil(VCO)was quantified using near-infrared(NIR)hyperspectral imaging.Nowadays,some VCO is adulterated with lower-priced PKO to reduce production costs,which diminishes the quality of the VCO.This study used NIR hyperspectral imaging in the wavelength region 900-1,650 nm to create a quantitative model for the detection of PKO contaminants(0-100%)in VCO and to develop predictive mapping.The prediction equation for the adulteration of VCO with PKO was constructed using the partial least squares regression method.The best predictive model was pre-processed using the standard normal variate method,and the coefficient of determination of prediction was 0.991,the root mean square error of prediction was 2.93%,and the residual prediction deviation was 10.37.The results showed that this model could be applied for quantifying the adulteration concentration of PKO in VCO.The prediction adulteration concentration mapping of VCO with PKO was created from a calibration model that showed the color level according to the adulteration concentration in the range of 0-100%.NIR hyperspectral imaging could be clearly used to quantify the adulteration of VCO with a color level map that provides a quick,accurate,and non-destructive detection method.

Geological characteristics of unconventional tight oil reservoir (10^(9) t): A case study of Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, northern Songliao Basin, NE China

The Daqing exploration area in the northern Songliao Basin has great potential for unconventional oil and gas resources,among which the total resources of tight oil alone exceed 109 t and is regarded as an important resource base of Daqing oilfield.After years of exploration in the Qijia area,Songliao Basin,NE China,tight oil has been found in the Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation.To work out tight oil’s geological characteristics,taking tight oil in Gaotaizi oil layers of the Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation in northern Songliao Basin as an example,this paper systematically analyzed the geological characteristics of unconventional tight oil in Gao3 and Gao4 layers of the Qijia area,based on the data of the geological survey,well drilling journey,well logging,and test.It is that three sets of hydrocarbon source rocks(K2qn1,K2qn2+3,and K2n1)develop in the examined area,and exhibit excellent type I and II kerogens,high organic matter abundance,and moderate maturity.The reservoir is generally composed of thin-bedded mudstone,siltstone,and sandstone,and presents poor porosity(average 8.5 vol.%)and air permeability(average 4 mD).The main reservoir space primarily includes intergranular pores,secondary soluble pores,and intergranular soluble pores.Three types of orifice throats were identified,namely fine throat,extra-fine throat,and micro-fine throat.The siltstone is generally oil-bearing,the reservoirs with slime and calcium become worse oil-bearing,and the mudstone has no obvious oil-bearing characteristics.The brittleness indices of the sandstone in the tight oil reservoir range from 40%to 60%,and those of the mudstone range from 40%to 45%,indicating a better brittleness of the tight oil reservoir.Based on the study of typical core hole data,this paper gives a comprehensive evaluation of the properties of the tight oil and establishes a tight oil single well composite bar chart as well as the initial evaluation system with the core of properties in the tight oil reservoir.This study has theoretical guiding significance and practical application value for tight oil exploration and evaluation in the Qijia area.

CO_(2)flooding in shale oil reservoir with radial borehole fracturing for CO_(2)storage and enhanced oil recovery

This study introduces a novel method integrating CO_(2)flooding with radial borehole fracturing for enhanced oil recovery and CO_(2)underground storage,a solution to the limited vertical stimulation reservoir volume in horizontal well fracturing.A numerical model is established to investigate the production rate,reservoir pressure field,and CO_(2)saturation distribution corresponding to changing time of CO_(2)flooding with radial borehole fracturing.A sensitivity analysis on the influence of CO_(2)injection location,layer spacing,pressure difference,borehole number,and hydraulic fractures on oil production and CO_(2)storage is conducted.The CO_(2)flooding process is divided into four stages.Reductions in layer spacing will significantly improve oil production rate and gas storage capacity.However,serious gas channeling can occur when the spacing is lower than 20 m.Increasing the pressure difference between the producer and injector,the borehole number,the hydraulic fracture height,and the fracture width can also increase the oil production rate and gas storage rate.Sensitivity analysis shows that layer spacing and fracture height greatly influence gas storage and oil production.Research outcomes are expected to provide a theoretical basis for the efficient development of shale oil reservoirs in the vertical direction.

Purification of Produced Water from a Sour Oilfield in South Kuwait. 1. Oil-Water Separation and Industrial Salt Production

Produced water from an oil extraction site in South Kuwait was sampled after primary oil – water separation had been carried out. The produced water was filtered through a mixture of activated charcoal and esterified cellulosic material gained from spent coffee grounds as a tertiary adsorption treatment. The earth-alkaline metal ions and heavy metals were separated from the de-oiled produced water by addition of either sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of carbon dioxide or by direct addition of solid sodium carbonate. The resulting filtrate gave salt of industrial purity upon selective crystallization on evaporation.

A review:Health benefits and physicochemical characteristics of blended vegetable oils

Oil blending is the method of choice used worldwide to improve oxidative stability and nutritional value.There is no such edible oil/fat that meets all the recommendations from the health point of view.The fatty acid composition of vegetable oils decides the fate of the oil.Pure single oil is unable to provide a balanced amount of fatty acids(FAs)required/recommended on a daily intake basis.Blending oils/fats is an appropriate procedure of physically mixing multiple oils in suitable proportions which may provide functional lipids with improved antioxidant potential and desirable physical and chemical properties.This review piled up the accessible data on the blending of diverse oils/fats in the combination of binary,ternary,quaternary,or other types of oils into a single blended oil.Blending can be found very convincing towards appropriate FA profile,enhancement in physicochemical characteristics,and augmented stability for the period of storage or when used as cooking/frying processes which could ultimately serve as an effectual dietary intervention towards the health protectiveness.

Experiment of dynamic seepage of tight/shale oil under matrix fracture coupling

A physical simulation method with a combination of dynamic displacement and imbibition was established by integrating nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)and CT scanning.The microscopic production mechanism of tight/shale oil in pore throat by dynamic imbibition and the influencing factors on the development effect of dynamic imbibition were analyzed.The dynamic seepage process of fracking-soaking-backflow-production integration was simulated,which reveals the dynamic production characteristics at different development stages and their contribution to enhancing oil recovery(EOR).The seepage of tight/shale reservoirs can be divided into three stages:strong displacement and weak imbibition as oil produced rapidly by displacement from macropores and fractures,weak displacement and strong imbibition as oil produced slowly by reverse imbibition from small pores,and weak displacement and weak imbibition at dynamic equilibrium.The greater displacement pressure results in the higher displacement recovery and the lower imbibition recovery.However,if the displacement pressure is too high,the injected water is easy to break through the front and reduce the recovery degree.The higher the permeability,the greater the imbibition and displacement recovery,the shorter the time of imbibition balance,and the higher the final recovery.The fractures can effectively increase the imbibition contact area between matrix and water,reduce the oil-water seepage resistance,promote the oil-water displacement between matrix and fracture,and improve the oil displacement rate and recovery of the matrix.The soaking after fracturing is beneficial to the imbibition replacement and energy storage of the fluid;also,the effective use of the carrying of the backflow fluid and the displacement in the mining stage is the key to enhancing oil recovery.

Cosmetic or Dietary Vegetable Oils Sampled in the Cameroonian Market May Not Expose Consumers to Lipid Oxidation Products Generating Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

Vegetable oils are a source of energy, essential fatty acids, antioxidants and fat-soluble vitamins useful for human health care and development. These oils also contribute to organoleptic quality of their products’ derivatives. However, their chemical and physical properties can be modified by the mode of their extraction, storage and distribution. These modifications might negatively affect the nutritional quality of the oils. The goals of this study were to: sample different vegetable oils for cosmetic or dietary use marketed in Cameroon, and verify purity and oxidation states of each kind of oil through determination of its acidity, iodine, peroxide, saponification, refractive indexes and the conformity of the labeling. The carotene content, the level of polar components and specific absorbance were also determined. As the result, six oils namely palm, palm kernel, coconut, black cumin, peanut and shea butter were collected. Apart from labeling, chemicals and physicals parameters analyzed were generally in accordance with the Cameroonian and Codex Alimentarius standard. This study suggests that vegetable oils sampled in the Cameroonian market may not expose consumers to lipid oxidation products generating pathological oxidative stress and inflammation. However, efforts in application of existing standard need to be done as far as labeling are concerned.

The Effect of Reaction Temperature, Catalyst Concentration and Alcohol Ratio in the Production of Biodiesel from Raw and Purified Castor Oil

In this study, a homogeneous alkaline catalyst was used in the production of biodiesel from raw and refined castor oil feedstock. The effect of potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a catalyst between the two feedstocks, raw and refined castor oil was compared. The transesterification technique was utilized in this study, aiming to investigate the effect of different parameters, which include the reaction temperature, methanol-to-oil mole ratio, and catalyst concentration at a constant period of 90 minutes. The result revealed the performance of the KOH catalyst on raw castor oil yielded 98.49% FAME, which was higher than the refined castor oil which yielded 97.9% FAME. The optimal conditions obtained from refined castor oil were applied to raw castor oil because of the same properties. The fuel quality of castor oil and produced biodiesel were tested for physicochemical properties.

Physicochemical Properties of the Seed Oil of Khaya senegalensis

The physicochemical characteristics of Khaya senegalensis seed oil were investigated. Iodine value, saponification value, percentage free fatty acid (FFA), acid value, and peroxide value were the chemical parameters examined in the oil analysis, while specific gravity and refractive index were examined as physical parameters. The results showed that the acid value was 1.18 ± 0.01, the saponification value was 191.76 ± 0.01 mgKOH/gm, and the iodine value was 102.79 ± 0.01. It contained 0.59 ± 0.01 percent free fatty acid. The value of peroxide was 6.83 ± 0.01 meq/kg. The results showed that the refractive index was 1.462 ± 0.02 and the specific gravity was 0.9194 ± 0.04. The established parameters fell within the worldwide and Nigerian vegetable oil industry standards.

Fatty Acid Composition of Hazelnut Kernel Oil from Coula edulis Collected in the Republic of Congo

Coula edulis is non-timber forest product (NTFP) used in Africa for its hazelnuts, which contain edible seeds with a demonstrated nutritional potential. However, there have been very few scientific studies of this species in the Republic of Congo. Thus, the aim of the current study was therefore to determine the fatty acid composition of the oil extracted from Coula edulis hazelnut seeds collected at random in the Republic of Congo. The oil was extracted using the Soxhlet method and its fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. The extracted oil from Coula edulis hazelnut kernels is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (95.28%), particularly oleic acid (94.5%), which classifies it as an oleic oil and gives it interesting nutritional and therapeutic properties. On the other hand, saturated fatty acids (4.15%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (0.35%) are not well represented. Its low poly-unsaturated fatty acid content makes it more stable when stored at room temperature.

Experimental analysis of matrix moveable oil saturation in tight sandstone reservoirs of the south Ordos Basin,China

Tight oil reservoirs in the south Ordos Basin are characterized by fractured,heterogeneous oil-bearing strata(an oil saturation of less than 55%on average),normal pressure(0.8±)and extra-low permeability(less than 0.3 mD).In the Chang 8 tight sandstone reservoir in Honghe oilfield,micro-and nanopores,especially those with a pore-throat radius of less than 1 mm,account for more than 90%.Fluid flow in the matrix is non-linear and crude oil flow rates are very low under normal pressure gradients.An improved understanding of oil mobility in a tight matrix is key to further development of normalpressure tight-oil resources in the continental basin.In this study,constant-velocity and high-pressure mercury injection experiments were conducted using samples of typical tight sandstone cores obtained from the south of Ordos Basin.A new method for reconstructing the full-scale pore-throat distribution characteristics of tight sandstone reservoirs was established successfully,based on which multistage centrifugal tests,tests of low-pressure differential displacement of oil by water,and nuclear magnetic resonance tests were conducted in order to obtain the distribution characteristics of moveable fluid in different pores.The moveable oil saturation(MOS)and degree of oil recovery(i.e.ratio of accumulative oil production to producing geologic reserves)of the core samples under different differential pressures for displacement were determined.As for the tight oil reservoirs in the south Ordos Basin,the moveable fluids are mainly stored in sub-micron(0.10-0.5 mm)pores.For Type I reservoirs(k>0.1 mD),the volume percentage of moveable fluid in pores with a radius larger than 0.5 mm is relatively high(greater than 40%).The degree of oil recovery of water flooding serves as the basis for forecasting recoverable reserves for tight oil reservoirs.Recoverable reserves under water flooding,mainly occur in pores with a radius greater than 0.5 mm.The contribution of Type I reserves to oil production is observed to be greater than 60%,and the degree of oil recovery reaches up to 17.1%.These results help improve our understanding on the evaluation and classification of Chang 8 tight sandstone reservoirs in Honghe oilfield and serve as theoretical basis for pilot tests to explore effective injection media and development methods to improve the matrix-driven pressure differences and displacement efficiency for oil.

Purification of Produced Water from a Sour Oilfield in South Kuwait. 2. Oil-Water Separation and Crystallization of Calcium Carbonate

Oil-water separation for produced water (PW) originating from an oil extraction site in South Kuwait was carried out using bleached, esterified cellulosic material from used coffee grounds. Thereafter, earth-alkaline metal ions, specifically calcium ions, of the de-oiled PW were removed by precipitation with sodium carbonate to give access to pure sodium chloride as industrial salt from the remaining PW. While the purity of the precipitated calcium carbonate (CaCO3) depends on the precipitation conditions, CaCO3 of up to 95.48% purity can be obtained, which makes it a salable product. The precipitation of CaCO3 decreases the amount of calcium ions in PW from 11,300 ppm to 84 ppm.

Development characteristics and controlling factors of fractures in lacustrine shale and their geological significance for evaluating shale oil sweet spots in the third member of the Shahejie Formation in the Qikou Sag, Bohai Bay Basin

Natural fractures are critical for shale oil and gas enrichment and development. Due to the extremely high heterogeneity of shale, the factors controlling the formation of internal fractures, especially horizontal fractures, remain controversial. In this study, we integrate thin section analysis and microcomputed tomography(CT) data from several lacustrine shale samples from the third member(Es3) of the Shahejie Formation, Qikou Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, to assess the fractures in detail. The goal is to reveal the development characteristics, controlling factors, and geological significance for evaluating sweet spots in a shale oil play. The fractures in the Es3contain high-angle structural and horizontal bed-parallel fractures that are mostly shear and extensional. Various factors influence fracture development,including lithofacies, mineral composition, organic matter content, and the number of laminae. Structural fractures occur predominantly in siltstone, whereas bed-parallel fractures are abundant in laminated shale and layered mudstone. A higher quartz content results in higher shale brittleness, causing fractures, whereas the transformation between clay minerals contributes to the development of bedparallel fractures. Excess pore pressure due to hydrocarbon generation and expulsion during thermal advance can cause the formation of bed-parallel fractures. The density of the bed-parallel and structural fractures increases with the lamina density, and the bed-parallel fractures are more sensitive to the number of laminae. The fractures are critical storage spaces and flow conduits and are indicative of sweet spots. The laminated shale in the Es3with a high organic matter content contains natural fractures and is an organic-rich, liquid-rich, self-sourced shale play. Conversely, the siltstone, massive mudstone, and argillaceous carbonate lithofacies contain lower amounts of organic matter and do not have bed-parallel fractures. However, good reservoirs can form in these areas when structural fractures are present and the source, and storage spaces are separated.