Sustainable Livelihood of Ecological Migrants in Qinling-Daba Mountains of Southern Shaanxi

The severe environment in Qinling-Daba Mountains has made it not suitable for the long-term residence due to the large amounts of ＂ecological migrants＂, and these migrants have moved out of the mountains and changed their economic and life styles, resulting in many problems. In this paper, the problems of ＂ecological migrants＂ were analyzed, including the education problem, different life styles, incomplete national protecting measures and policies, with the aim to provide governments with constructive suggestions for the establishment of the education and training system, acceleration of the development of industries （especially the tertiary industry, subsidiary business）, and labor transferring, increasing the incomes of ＂ecological migrants＂, and making the ＂ecological migrants＂ have the financial resources for a long time, thereby better stabilizing the ＂ecological migrants＂.

Sustainable livelihood security in Odisha, India: A district level analysis

Sustainable livelihood security(SLS) is an integrating framework that encompasses current concerns and policy requirements for ecological, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development. It carries particular importance for developing economies. This study intends to verify the relative status of SLS of the 30 districts in Odisha, which is a backward state in eastern India. In this study, a total of 22 relevant indicators relating to the three components of SLS—ecological security, social equity, and economic efficiency have been taken, based on various kinds of government reports. The principal component analysis(PCA) was used to ascertain the indicators and the importance of each of them to the corresponding component of SLS. The ecological security index(ESI), social equity index(SEI), economic efficiency index(EEI), and composite sustainable livelihood security index(CSLSI) of each district of Odisha were calculated through the min-max normalization technique. The results revealed that there are wide variations in SLS among the districts of Odisha. In this study, the districts are categorized into four levels based on the scores of ESI, SEI, EEI, and CSLSI as very low(<0.400), low(0.400–0.549), medium(0.550–0.700), and high(>0.700). According to the classification result of CSLSI, 2 districts are found to be in the very low category, 20 districts are under the low sustainability category, 8 districts are in the medium category, and none of the districts are found to be in the high sustainability category. The district of Sambalpur ranks the highest with a CSLSI score of 0.624. The bottom five districts are Gajapati, Bolangir, Nabarangpur, Kandhamal, and Malkangiri, having the CSLSI scores of 0.438, 0.435, 0.406, 0.391, and 0.344, respectively. The result of this study suggests that region-specific, systematic, and proactive approaches are desirable for balanced development in Odisha. Further, policy intervention is required to implement more inclusive tribal welfare policies.

Contribution of Ecotourism Towards Sustainable Livelihood of the Communities Living on Wasini Island, Kwale County, Kenya

Ecotourism has traditionally been viewed as a panacea concept for developing countries to stimulate the economy, as well as, directly provide support for conservation efforts. This study examined the concept of ecotourism for a relatively sustainable, single activity within an established tourism destination of Wasini Island in Kwale County. The purpose of the study was to assess the contribution of ecotourism initiatives to the livelihoods of the local community, guided by the following objective： to assess the attitude of the local community towards ecotourism development. Descriptive survey research was adopted for the study. The target population included all ecotourism entrepreneurs, conservationists, community based organizations （CBOs）, and tour operators based in Wasini Island. Systematic random sampling was used to select 320 respondents. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires while secondary data were obtained through critical examination of public and private recorded documents related to the study. Data were analyzed using techniques which included frequencies, means, modes and percentages. Ecotourism initiatives in the study area have significantly contributed to job creation and financial empowerment to the local people. Ecotourism in the study area has contributed to the acquisition of both human （education） and physical assets owned by the local community. Environmental conservation has also been achieved through ecotourism initiatives. In the face of joblessness, residents of Wasini need to be capacitated to venture into ecotourism projects as it has the potential of improving livelihoods.

Social interactions in periodic urban markets and their contributions to sustainable livelihoods:Evidence from Ghana

Periodic markets are an important aspect of local economies,providing a platform for farmers(producers),wholesalers,retailers,and consumers to interact face-to-face and exchange goods and services.These markets have been increasing in urban areas in Africa,Asia,and South America because of urbanization.The increase of periodic urban markets(PUMs)in urban areas is observed as an index of modernization,reflecting a response to transition process.However,there are limited studies on how social interactions in PUMs contribute to sustainable livelihoods.This study investigated the types of social interactions occurring in PUMs in Ghana,the benefits of social interactions for participants of PUMs,and how social interactions contribute to sustainable livelihoods.This research interviewed 162 participants,comprising 27 farmers(farmers were regarded as producers in this study),61 retailers,47 wholesalers from 9 selected PUMs across Ghana,and 27 officers from government institutions and non-governmental market associations to obtain their opinions.We analyzed the interview data using the NVivo software.The results showed that there are seven kinds of social interactions in PUMs,including(i)producer-wholesaler relationship,(ii)producer-consumer relationship,(iii)wholesaler-retailer relationship,(iv)retailer-consumer relationship,(v)trader-driver relationship,(vi)trader-institution relationship,and(vii)trader-international buyer relationship.We found that these social interactions in PUMs enhance sustainable livelihoods by supporting human,social,financial,natural,and physical assets of traders(traders refer to producers,wholesalers,and retailers in this study).Therefore,we concluded that the development of policies to improve PUMs could strengthen social interactions,enabling the achievement of sustainable livelihoods in developing countries.

Sustainable livelihoods in a Coptis-planting based rural community:a case study in Shizhu County,China

Coptis chinensis is a medicinal herb used in traditional Chinese medicine.This research features a case study in Shizhu County,China.Participatory Rural Appraisal(PRA) is used as the main tool for data collection.The study demonstrates that the current method of Coptis planting leads to forest destruction.Even with reforestation measures,it leads to the loss of biodiversity in the forest.It also shows that farmers cannot get satisfactory economic returns from Coptis planting,as the return is unstable and unpredictable.One alternative to the current Coptis planting mode is to incorporate it into the agroforestry system.Water shield planting also serves as a good alternative to Coptis planting itself.Improved methods of management,post-harvest processing,and marketing of Coptis are also proposed and analyzed.The intended contribution of this paper to the theoretical debate of sustainability shall be the provision of an example showing how agricultural production affects forest conservation.It also presents redressable measures to the negative consequences.Besides,one alternative livelihood pathway for the rural community in this case study is suggested.

Impact of Land Acquisition on the Sustainable Livelihoods in Ninh Thuan Province, Vietnam

The concept of sustainable livelihood is an attempt to go beyond the conventional definitions and approaches to poverty eradication. These had been found to be too narrow because they focused only on certain aspects or manifestations of poverty, such as low income, or did not consider other vital aspects of poverty such as vulnerability and social exclusion. It is now recognized that more attention must be paid to the various factors and processes which either constrain or enhance poor people＇s ability to make a living in an economically, ecologically, and socially sustainable manner. Construction of nuclear power plants in Vietnam is in the first step of implementing and will be allocated in Thuan Nam and Ninh Hai districts, Ninh Thuan province, an agricultural and poor province in Vietnam. This requires a large area of land mobilized, thus a part of popupation living in the project area has to move far away. Besides the positive effects of this project, there are significantly negative impacts on the people living in the project areas and nearby, and their livelihoods are seriously affected. This paper aims at assessing the impact of the nuclear power plants construction on the livelihoods of people in two districts in Ninh Thuan province, in order to have mechanisms and policies to support reasonably and effectively, contributing to stabilize people＇s lives and local development.

SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOOD AND ECOLOGICAL SHELTER CONSTRUCTION IN UPPER REACHES OF CHANGJIANG RIVER——Case Study of Zhaotong of Yunnan Province

Sustainable livelihood theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the interactions between livelihoods of peasant households and regional environment change in low-income areas. Based on field survey and 946 questionnaires from peasant household conducted in the case study area of Zhaotong, Yunnan Province, the paper has analyzed the basic characteristics of the rural livelihoods, including the asset base status, the income-generating activities, the energy consumption pattern, and the fertility behavior, in the upper reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River. The micro-level findings show the conflicts among extensive agricultural development models, rural energy consumption structures heavily relying on biomass and the environment protection. The conversion of cropland to forest and grass program(CCFGP) has exerted an important influence on the livelihoods of the peasant households, but its design has given little considerations to their long-term livelihood sources, which will affect its sustainability to a great extent. From the perspective of sustainable livelihoods framework, the objectives that must be addressed in the ecological shelter construction in the upper reaches of the Changjiang River should include, first, facilitating access of peasant households to credit, technology and public services, second, encouraging the peasant households to adopt agricultural technology with environmental benefits and strengthen resources-conserving investments, and third, paying close attention to the rural energy problems and the long-term livelihood sources of the households with CCFGP. Given the weak asset base and difficulties of livelihood strategies shift, ecological shelter construction in the upper reaches of the Changjiang River will take a long time.

Rural households’livelihood responses to industry-based poverty alleviation as a sustainable route out of poverty

Industrialization is one way to achieve a sustainable route out of poverty.During the implementation of industry-based poverty alleviation projects,rural households’livelihood responses to change are crucial.A stronger livelihood response is conducive to multidimensional poverty relief due to industry-based poverty alleviation projects.Effective poverty alleviation can also stimulate stronger household responses.There is a positive cycle between livelihood response and multidimensional poverty relief effects that can help achieve sustainable poverty alleviation goals.Using a synergistic perspective on the relationship between“people–industry–land”,this paper explains the poverty alleviation logic connecting livelihood response,multidimensional poverty relief,and sustainable routes out of poverty by constructing a four-dimensional livelihood response measurement system with three elements of intensity.We analyzed survey data collected from 2363 households from 4 sample counties in 4 contiguous poverty-stricken areas,and measured and compared the characteristics of rural households’livelihood responses and the factors influencing poverty alleviation projects.Rural households’livelihood responses in four sample counties were moderate.The four dimensions of responses were ranked as livelihood strategy response,livelihood space response,livelihood output response,and livelihood capital response.The three intensities indicated that the perception and willingness elements of livelihood response were very similar,but there was a big gap between those elements and livelihood response actions.At the group level,poor households had higher and more consistent livelihood response than non-poor households.External environment factors(such as location,industry type,village organizational ability,and village atmosphere)and internal family factors(such as resource endowment,income sources,health,education,labor quantity,policy trust,credit availability,and social networks)had a significant impact on households’livelihood response.However,this impact varied across different dimensions and had different intensities.This paper proposes a multidimensional poverty relief mechanism and suggests sustainable routes out of poverty.

Sustainable Livelihood Security in the Poyang Lake Eco-economic Zone:Ecologically Secure,Economically Efficient or Socially Equitable?

Sustainable Livelihood Security(SLS)remains a rarely considered yet important issue for rural sustainability and natural resource management.Particularly in China,rural SLS research in a typical area is urgently needed,but insufficient under the background of National Rural Revitalization and Ten-year Fishing Ban of Yangtze River.Focusing on the policy-targeted inland lake area,we proposed a Livelihood Security Analysis(LSA)framework by establishing an adaptive indicator system and integrating multiple econometrical and geographical methods.This study aims to evaluate the SLS in Poyang Lake Eco-economic Zone comprehensively from the three aspects of ecology,economy and society,analyze their spatial patterns,identify the main constraints,and finally give specific suggestions for improving rural sustainability management.The results showed that rural SLS in the inland great lake area tended to be vulnerable mainly due to the lagging economic efficiency and unbalanced social equality,and mediated by regional ecological characteristics.The overall SLS and Ecological Security Index(ESI)were higher in the north and lower in the south,while Economic Efficiency Index(EEI)and Social Equality Index(SEI)were at the middle level and circularly distributed around Nanchang City.The dominating factors which have greatly shaped the spatial pattern of SLS include rural per capita electricity consumption,fishery breeding area,population dependency ratio,urbanization rate,and fishery population.The obstacle degree is ranked as economic system>social system>ecological system.An outdated economy and incomplete social services are the main constraints,characterized by weak electricity consumption,limited beds in hospitals,low urbanization rate,deficient agricultural machinery power,and a small agricultural output value.Therefore,one urgent need is to activate the rural economy by reinforcing rural electric power facilities and promoting agricultural mechanization.In addition,transforming the peasants/fishermen to the non-agricultural sector should be accelerated,which will help to reduce ecological pressure,boost urban-rural integration and narrow the income gap.

Sustainable development problems and countermeasures:A case study of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP)is a region with unique and distinctive natural landscapes and cultural charac-teristics and presents a useful case to improve understanding of sustainable development for regions with extreme environments and unique social backgrounds.Research has been conducted for small-scale regions,however there has been insufficient exploration of the problems and countermeasures for sustainable development in Tibet.This study analyzes different functional zones(urbanized zones,agricultural zones,pastoral zones and ecological se-curity zones)of the QTP.Then it develops a sustainable livelihood index(SLI)based on the sustainable livelihood analysis framework resulting in three main findings.First,sustainable livelihoods vary greatly across functional zones.The SLI for farmers and herdsmen in the urbanized zones is the highest,with a value of 3.57,followed by the agricultural zones of 3.07.In comparison,the SLI values in the ecological security zones and pastoral zones are 2.92 and 2.85,respectively,indicating that the two zones present challenges for sustainable develop-ment in the QTP.Second,all counties had few natural,social or physical assets,indicating the need to expand assets to achieve sustainable livelihoods.Finally,urbanized and agricultural counties had more robust livelihood strategies than ecological and pastoral counties.In light of these results,strategic options have been formulated to promote sustainable development.These options include:accelerating construction of the third pole national park group;establishing a pattern of green mining;promoting the biological resources industry;and initiating a carbon trading market in the QTP.

Impacts of livelihood assets on livelihood security in drought-prone Gamo lowlands of southwest Ethiopia

Livelihood assets are a matter of high concern for secured survival.Drought-prone Gamo lowland households have differential access to livelihood resources which indicates the varying capacity of resisting to shocks.The main objective of this study is to explore the impacts of livelihood assets on livelihood security in the drought-prone Gamo lowlands.Multistage sampling procedures were employed to select the study sites and sample respondents.Primary data of households’capital assets and livelihood security status were produced from 285 survey households,agricultural experts,key informants,focus group discussants,and field observation through transect walks.Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data,whereas discussions and annotations were employed for analyzing qualitative data.The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is used with modifications to schematize the study conceptually.The findings indicated that the study households possessed combinations of livelihood resources differentially.Financial and natural capitals were found to be the most deficient and better-accessed capitals,respectively.The study also showed that lowland residents’access to assets has significant indications of livelihood security.Households’poor access to assets such as financial,information,and social capital demands raised attention of the concerned stakeholders and policy debates in the drought-prone rural setup.Hence,it has been concluded that the more assets are accessed,the stronger the capacity of the households to resist shocks,and better the livelihood security.Accordingly,enhancing people’s access to multiple livelihood assets is suggested to sustainably secure livelihoods.

Relationship analysis between livelihood assets and livelihood strategies:A Heihe River Basin example

The security and quality of the livelihood of farmers is of paramount concern in rural areas of China. Livelihood stability would force the related polity to act coordinately while eradicating poverty and promoting resource sustainability. For this study, the livelihood approach was used as a framework of analysis that is based upon Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, the core of which is livelihood assets. Livelihood capitals provide substantial contributions to the well-being of numerous rural dwellers. However, the level and degree of reliance on livelihood capital differ across households. Factors that contribute to the economic reliance of households on a particular economic activity in general and on livelihood capital in particular may vary depending upon the type of resource endowment, household demographic, and economic characteristic as well as exoge- nous factors such as markets, prices, policies, and technologies. This study identifies factors that influence a household＇s live- lihood strategy choice with a particular focus on livelihood assets. The study applies a preliminary investigation concerning the relationship between livelihood assets and livelihood strategies, that is, the allocation of assets. Environmentally augmented household livelihood assets were collected from 300 sample households within the Heihe River Basin. Results show that physical assets possess a maximum value （0.609） for farmers and human assets possess a relatively high value （0.516） fol- lowed by social assets （0.354）. Besides, financial and natural assets possess relatively low values （0.286 and 0.241, respec- tively）. An increment of one unit should reduce the occurrence of choosing non-agricultural activities for natural capital while an increment of one unit should increase the occurrence of choosing non-agricultural activities for financial capital, while other variables remain constant. Governments, therefore, should enhance funding and technological support to achieve livelihood diversity and strengthen the facility of farmers by way of establishing relevant polity. It would enable farmers and provide themselves with the ability and asset reserves to transition from agricultural production to secondary and tertiary industries in order to improve the livelihood of farmers overall.

Considerations on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development in Dryland Areas

Drylands of the world cover 41%of the Earth＇s land surface and are a direct source of livelihood for 6.5 billion people, especially in developing countries. However, nearly all drylands are at risk of land degradation as a result of human activities. Poverty and desertification in dryland areas are major problems threatening sustainable agriculture and rural development in dryland areas. Several topics that are significant for sustainable agriculture and rural development for food security and environmental rehabilitation in dryland areas were stressed in this paper.

How to Improve Tea Farmers' Livelihoods in the Sightseeing Place along Lijiang River Valley?

The unbalance of tourism development and comparative superiority of the tea industry brings new opportunities to the poor groups along Lijiang River Valley for improving their livelihoods. From the perspective of sustainable livelihoods,we analyze the problems in tea farmers' livelihoods,such as lack of fund,low capacity in price negotiation,and high cost of resisting various risks. Recommendations are put forward for tea farmers to improve their livelihoods through ways of enterprise cooperation,innovative marketing,brand cultivation,industrial integration and so on.

Geographical Differences and Influencing Factors of Rural Energy Consumption in Southwest Mountain Areas in China:A Case Study of Zhaotong City

China is a mountainous country,and Southwest mountain areas cover the most mountain areas in China and have the most serious problems.Taking Zhaotong city as the study area,based on 902 rural household questionnaires of 11 villages in 2 counties and Tobit model,this paper analyzes the geographical differences and influencing factors of energy consumption for non-production purposes of rural households living in different terrain conditions.This research finds that:(1) Coal takes up the main part of energy consumption in valley areas and coal consumption is mainly affected by per capita cultivated land area,household income,proportion of rural household energy expenditure in total expenditure,coal price,and family population size.Firewood takes up the main part of energy consumption in high mountain areas and firewood consumption is mainly affected by per capita firewood forest area,distance to purchase coal,household income,electricity price,and coal price.(2) Only when the distance is greater than 20 kilometers,that is the average distance of rural households living in middle mountain areas(1,600m^1,800m) to purchase coal,the transportation condition has a significant impact on coal consumption.(3) In high mountain areas,prices of coal and electricity are the main factors influencing energy consumption choice of rural households.Too high prices of coal and electricity would to some extent lead rural households to choose firewood as the main energy consumption type.Compared to coal,rural households prefer to choose electricity.

Forest cover change and its driving forces in Fagita Lekoma District,Ethiopia

This study investigated forest cover change and the driving forces behind it in Fagita Lekoma District of Ethiopia that resulted in increased forest cover,which might be uncommon outside this case study area.The LULC change analysis was made from 2003 to 2017 based on Landsat images.Socioeconomic analysis was carried out to identify the major driving forces that resulted in LULC change.A questionnaire survey,focused group discussion,key informant interviews and field observation were employed to analyze the link between LULC change and the driving forces.The 15-year period(2003–2017)image analysis revealed that the coverage of forest lands,built-up areas and grassland has increased by 256%,100%and 96%,respectively,at the expense of cultivated lands and wetlands.The increased forest cover is due to the woodlots expansion of Acacia decurrens Willd,which are designed for sustainable livelihoods and a land revitalization strategy in the study area.Rapid population growth,an increasing demand for charcoal and subsequent market opportunities,preferred qualities of A.decurrens or black wattle to halt land degradation as well as to improve land productivity,have been identified as the major driving forces of forest cover change.Chi squared analysis revealed that:a comparative cash income from the sale of A.decurrens;a dependency on natural forests;the distance from the district administrative center;the size of the active labor force,and the area of land owned have significantly affected the cover change.The major forest cover change is due to the expansion of A.decurrens plantations that have socioeconomic and environmental implications to improve rural livelihoods and revitalize the land.Thus,the positive experiences identified in this study should be scaled-up and applied in other similar settings.

Rainwater harvesting in the challenge of droughts and climate change in semi-arid Brazil

Some successful experiences of rainwater harvesting in Brazil’s semi-arid region are shown how rural communities are living during the severe drought from 2011 to 2013 using technologies of rainwater harvesting for the household in agriculture livestock raising and the environment.Starting from the positive experiences principles of living in the challenge of droughts and climate change are elaborated and summarized into different guidelines for sustainable livelihood and production access to water and sufficient land area rainwater harvesting to provide water security to households and communities preservation recovering and management of drought-resistant vegetation emphases on raising of small and medium sized livestock and water and forage storage appropriate crop selection and sustainable extraction processing and marketing of crop products capacity building of the people. These principles contribute to preparing a national policy on living in harmony with the semi-arid climate. Rainwater harvesting is an important part of a package of measures which enables a sustainable livelihood in such a difficult environment.

Understanding human-leopard conflict in the ‘Mid-hill’ region of western Nepal

Livestock rearing and agriculture are the main sources of community-based livelihoods in western Nepal.Across the rural mid-hills region of Gandaki Province,leopards are the top predator and frequently depredate livestock and attack humans.Spatiotemporal patterns of human-leopard conflicts(HLC) in Nepal are poorly known at the provincial and national scales,which are essential to formulating effective conflict mitigation strategies and implementing them in the field.This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of HLC by applying Maxent modeling to covariates relating to known and registered conflict cases(n=842) collected from Nepalese government offices.We found that cases of HLC have been increasing significantly over the past five years.We also concluded that mid-elevation,south-facing slopes were more susceptible to HLC,but that mean annual temperature was by far the most important predictor of HLC;overall livestock density and proximity to roads were also important,but secondarily so.Although we found the increase in human fatalities to 2.16/year was significant(p<0.05),overall human injuries were down slightly,though not significantly(5.16/year;p>0.05).However,we also found an increasing trend in livestock depredation rates for this same five-year period(p<0.05),which averaged 159.6 head/year among incidents reported.We also found that winter was the main season when depredations occurred,and that goats were the most depredated of all livestock.A total US $86,892.25($17,378.45/year) of economic losses were incurred by communities during this time,with 78.57% of the total value reimbursed as compensatory relief through the government’s relief fund.We recommend that the use of predator-proof livestock corrals,greater awareness in local communities about wildlife behavior,better animal husbandry and security practices,and a more efficient compensation program,can improve coexistence between leopard populations and human communities in western Nepal.

Can Anti-poverty Policies Improve Livelihood Sustainability?An Empirical Study from the Perspective of Farmers’Perceptions

In recent years,an ambitious development policy named the targeted poverty alleviation policy has been implemented in China,and it has achieved remarkable success.But whether the smallholder farmers raised out of extreme poverty due to this policy have achieved sustainable livelihoods remains uncertain.This study developed a livelihood sustainability index that can comprehensively assess farmers’livelihoods,constructed an analytical model of the direct and indirect impacts of policy measures on livelihood sustainability using the farmer’s perceptions of those policies as a mediator,and created a policy perception elasticity factor to screen the contributions of policy measures to the improvement of livelihood sustainability.Based on these theoretical advances,a case study of an indigenous community on the Tibetan Plateau was conducted.The results show that this policy has contributed to improving farmers’livelihood sustainability in the case areas,especially in terms of livelihood assets and livelihood outcomes,through direct encouragement and indirect influences based on the vulnerability context.In China’s era of“post-targeted poverty alleviation”,the findings from this case study indicate that relevant future policies should attach importance to institutional reform and staff management,and establish practical actions to cope with the uncertainty of the vulnerability context.

Social perception of soil conservation benefits in Kondoa eroded area of Tanzania

A soil conservation project was implemented in Tanzania for over 30 years.This study applied a socio-economic approach to examine and analyse the benefits of soil conservation in the Kondoa eroded area of Tanzania by conducting a household survey of 240 households.The study findings show that 89%and 70%of respondents consider soil conservation activities have increased vegetation and soil fertility,respectively.Decreased soil erosion was perceived by 68%of respondents,increased firewood by 98%,increased fodder by 50%,high crop yields by 56%,and food sufficiency by 68%.These are the outcomes of conservation tillage,integrated farming and use of organic fertilizers,controlled stall feeding,agroforestry,construction of cut off drains,contour bunds and contour ridges cultivation,which are the main land use practices in the area.Access to extension services,household sizes,long term land ownership,crop incomes and awareness of soil conservation project were found to determine the level of participation in soil conservation.Major challenges are the lack of sustainability of those activities because of a recent policy decision to withdraw conservation investment.Despite the challenge,this study concluded that past government efforts on soil conservation activities initiated since the early 1970s through decentralization,institutional collaboration,socioeconomic support to farmers and continuous local community participation in restoring the degraded ecosystem of Kondoa have contributed to ensure environmental and socio-economic sustainability in the area.