Insights into the Tectonic Fractures in the Yanchang Formation Interbedded Sandstone-Mudstone of the Ordos Basin Based on Core Data and Geomechanical Models

The distribution and intensity of tectonic fractures within geologic units are important to hydrocarbon exploration and development. Taken the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation interbedded sandstone-mudstone in the Ordos Basin as an example, this study used the finite element method（FEM） based on geomechanical models to study the development of tectonic fractures. The results show that the sandstones tend to generate tectonic fractures more easily than mudstones with the same layer thickness, and the highest degree of tectonic fractures will be developed when the sandstone-mudstone thickness ratio is about 5.0. A possible explanation is proposed for the tectonic fracture development based on two important factors of rock brittleness and mechanical layer thickness. Generally, larger rock brittleness and thinner layer thickness will generate more tectonic fractures. In interbedded sandstone-mudstone formations, the rock brittleness increases with the increasing mechanical layer thickness, hence, these two factors will achieve a balance for the development of tectonic fractures when the sandstone-mudstone thickness ratio reaches a specific value, and the development degree of tectonic fractures is the highest at this value.

Simulation of Paleotectonic Stress Fields and Distribution Prediction of Tectonic Fractures at the Hudi Coal Mine, Qinshui Basin

Study on tectonic fractures based on the inversion of tectonic stress fields is an effective method. In this study, a geological model was set up based on geological data from the Hudi Coal Mine, Qinshui Basin, a mechanical model was established under the condition of rock mechanics and geostress, and the finite element method was used to simulate the paleotectonic stress field. Based on the Griffith and Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the distribution of tectonic fractures in the Shanxi Formation during the Indosinian, Yanshanian, and Himalayan period can be predicted with the index of comprehensive rupture rate. The results show that the acting force of the Pacific Plate and the India Plate to the North China Plate formed the direction of principal stress is N-S, NW - SE, and NE - SW, respectively, in different periods in the study area. Changes in the direction and strength of the acting force led to the regional gradients of tectonic stress magnitude, which resulted in an asymmetrical distribution state of the stress conditions in different periods. It is suggested that the low-stress areas are mainly located in the fault zones and extend along the direction of the fault zones. Furthermore, the high-stress areas are located in the junction of fold belts and the binding site of multiple folds. The development of tectonic fractures was affected by the distribution of stress intensity and the tectonic position of folds and faults, which resulted in some developed areas with level I and II. There are obvious differences in the development of tectonic fractures in the fold and fault zones and the anticline and syncline structure at the same fold zones. The tectonic fractures of the Shanxi Formation during the Himalayan period are more developed than those during the Indosinian and Yanshanian period due to the superposition of the late tectonic movement to the early tectonic movement and the differences in the magnitude and direction of stress intensity.

Tectonic Fractures in Tight Gas Sandstones of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Western Sichuan Basin,China

The western Sichuan Basin, which is located at the front of the Longmen Mountains in the west of Sichuan Province, China, is a foreland basin formed in the Late Triassic. The Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation is a tight gas sandstone reservoir with low porosity and ultra-low permeability, whose gas accumulation and production are controlled by well-developed fracture zones. There are mainly three types of fractures developed in the Upper Triassic tight gas sandstones, namely tectonic fractures, diagenetic fractures and overpressure-related fractures, of which high-angle tectonic fractures are the most important. The tectonic fractures can be classified into four sets, i.e., N-S-, NE-, E-W- and NW-striking fractures. In addition, there are a number of approximately horizontal shear fractures in some of the medium-grained sandstones and grit stones nearby the thrusts or slip layers. Tectonic fractures were mainly formed at the end of the Triassic, the end of the Cretaceous and the end of the Neogene-Early Pleistocene. The development degree of tectonic fractures was controlled by lithology, thickness, structure, stress and fluid pressure. Overpressure makes not only the rock shear strength decrease, but also the stress state change from compression to tension. Thus, tensional fractures can he formed in fold-thrust belts. Tectonic fractures are mainly developed along the NE- and N-S-striking structural belts, and are the important storage space and the principal flow channels in the tight gas sandstone. The porosity of fractures here is 28.4% of the gross reservoir porosity, and the permeability of fractures being two or three grades higher than that of the matrix pores. Four sets of high-angle tectonic fractures and horizontal shear fractures formed a good network system and controlled the distribution and production of gas in the tight sandstones.

The tectonic fracture modeling of an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir based on an outcrop analogy: A case study in the Wangyao Oilfield of Ordos Basin, China

Due to inherent limits of data acquisition and geophysical data resolution, there are large uncertainties in the characterization of subsurface fractures. However, outcrop analogies can provide qualitative and quantitative information on a large number of fractures, based on which the accuracy of subsurface fracture characterization can be improved. Here we take the tectonic fracture modeling of an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir based on an outcrop analogy, a case study of the Chang6t~ Formation of the Upper Triassic Yanchang Group of the Wangyao Oilfield in the Ordos Basin of China. An outcrop at the edge of the basin is a suitable analog for the reservoir, but the prerequisite is that they must have equivalent previous stress fields, similar final structural characteristics, relative timing and an identical depositional environment and diagenesis. The relationship among fracture density, rock type and bed thickness based on the outcrop is one of the most important fracture distribution models, and can be used to interpret fracture density in individual wells quantitatively. Fracture orientation, dip, geometry and scale, also should be described and measured in the outcrop, and can be used together with structure restoration and single well fracture density interpretation to guide fracture intensity prediction on bed surfaces and to constrain the construction of the 3D fracture geometry model of the subsurface reservoir. The application of the above principles shows the outcrop-based tectonic fracture models of the target ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir are consistent with fractures inferred from microseismic interpretation and tracer tests. This illustrated that the fracture modeling based on the outcrop analogy is reliable and can reduce the uncertainty in stochastic fracture modeling.