Summer Atmospheric Water Cycle under the Transition Influence of the Westerly and Summer Monsoon over the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin in the Southern Tibetan Plateau

This study compares the summer atmospheric water cycle,including moisture sources and consumption,in the upstream,midstream,and downstream regions of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin in the southern Tibetan Plateau.The evolutions of moisture properties under the influence of the westerly and summer southerly monsoon are examined using 5-yr multi-source measurements and ERA5 reanalysis data.Note that moisture consumption in this study is associated with clouds,precipitation,and diabatic heating.Compared to the midstream and downstream regions,the upstream region has less moisture,clouds,and precipitation,where the moisture is brought by the westerly.In early August,the vertical wet advection over this region becomes enhanced and generates more high clouds and precipitation.The midstream region has moisture carried by the westerly in June and by the southerly monsoon from July to August.The higher vertical wet advection maximum here forms more high clouds,with a precipitation peak in early July.The downstream region is mainly affected by the southerly-driven wet advection.The rich moisture and strong vertical wet advection here produce the most clouds and precipitation among the three regions,with a precipitation peak in late June.The height of the maximum moisture condensation is different between the midstream region(325 hPa)and the other two regions(375 hPa),due to the higher upward motion maximum in the midstream region.The diabatic heating structures show that stratiform clouds dominate the upstream region,stratiform clouds and deep convection co-exist in the midstream region,and deep convection systems characterize the downstream region.

Wind regime features and their impacts on the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River on the Tibetan Plateau, China

The wide valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River is one of the most intense areas in terms of aeolian activity on the Tibetan Plateau,China.In the past,the evaluation of the intensity of aeolian activity in the Quxu–Sangri section of the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley was mainly based on data from the old meteorological stations,especially in non-sandy areas.In 2020,six new meteorological stations,which are closest to the new meteorological stations,were built in the wind erosion source regions(i.e.,sandy areas)in the Quxu–Sangri section.In this study,based on mathematical statistics and empirical orthogonal function(EOF)decomposition analysis,we compared the difference of the wind regime between new meteorological stations and old meteorological stations from December 2020 to November 2021,and discussed the reasons for the discrepancy.The results showed that sandy and non-sandy areas differed significantly regarding the mean velocity(8.3(±0.3)versus 7.7(±0.3)m/s,respectively),frequency(12.9%(±6.2%)versus 2.9%(±1.9%),respectively),and dominant direction(nearly east or west versus nearly north or south,respectively)of sand-driving winds,drift potential(168.1(±77.3)versus 24.0(±17.9)VU(where VU is the vector unit),respectively),resultant drift potential(92.3(±78.5)versus 8.7(±9.2)VU,respectively),and resultant drift direction(nearly westward or eastward versus nearly southward or northward,respectively).This indicated an obvious spatial variation in the wind regime between sandy and non-sandy areas and suggested that there exist problems when using wind velocity data from non-sandy areas to evaluate the wind regime in sandy areas.The wind regime between sandy and non-sandy areas differed due to the differences in topography,heat flows,and their coupling with underlying surface,thereby affecting the local atmospheric circulation.Affected by large-scale circulations(westerly jet and Indian monsoon systems),both sandy and non-sandy areas showed similar seasonal variations in their respective wind regime.These findings provide a credible reference for re-understanding the wind regime and scientific wind-sand control in the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley.

Study of the intensity and driving factors of land use/cover change in the Yarlung Zangbo River, Nyang Qu River, and Lhasa River region, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China

Land use/land cover(LULC) is an important part of exploring the interaction between natural environment and human activities and achieving regional sustainable development. Based on the data of LULC types(cropland, forest land, grassland, built-up land, and unused land) from 1990 to 2015, we analysed the intensity and driving factors of land use/cover change(LUCC) in the Yarlung Zangbo River,Nyang Qu River, and Lhasa River(YNL) region, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of China, using intensity analysis method, cross-linking table method, and spatial econometric model. The results showed that LUCC in the YNL region was nonstationary from 1990 to 2015, showing a change pattern with "fast-slow-fast" and "U-shaped". Built-up land showed a steady increase pattern, while cropland showed a steady decrease pattern. The gain of built-up land mainly came from the loss of cropland. The transition pattern of LUCC in the YNL region was relatively single and stable during 1990–2015. The transition pattern from cropland and forest land to built-up land was a systematic change process of tendency and the transition pattern from grassland and unused land to cropland was a systematic change process of avoidance. The transition process of LUCC was the result of the combined effect of natural environment and social economic development in the YNL region. This study reveals the impact of ecological environment problems caused by human activities on the land resource system and provides scientific support for the study of ecological environment change and sustainable development of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Compound extreme events in Yarlung Zangbo River Basin from 1977 to 2018

Extreme climate events threaten human health,economic development,and ecosystems.Many studies have been conducted on extreme precipitation and temperature changes in the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin(YZRB).However,little attention has been paid to compound climate extremes.In this study,the variations of wet/warm compound extreme events in summer and dry/cold compound extreme events in winter over the past 42 years in the YZRB were investigated using eight extreme climate indices that were estimated using monthly temperature and precipitation observations.The results showed that the numbers of frost days and ice days tended to decrease on the spatiotemporal scale,while the maximum values of daily maximum temperature and daily minimum temperature exhibited increasing trends.The frequency of wet/warm compound extreme events was significantly higher from 1998 to 2018 than from 1977 to 1997.Dry/cold compound extreme events became less frequent from 1998 to 2018 than from 1977 to 1997.The rate of increase of wet/warm compound extreme events was about ten times the absolute rate of decrease of dry/cold compound extreme events.With regard to the spatial pattern,the frequency of wet/warm compound extreme events increased significantly in almost all parts of the YZRB,while that of dry/cold compound extreme events decreased across the basin.This study helps to improve our understanding of the changes in compound precipitation and temperature extremes in the YZRB from a multivariable perspective.

Climate change over the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin during 1961-2005

The Yarlung Zangbo River （YR） is the highest great river in the world, and its basin is one of the centers of human economic activity in Tibet. Using 10 meteorological stations over the YR basin in 1961-2005, the spatial and temporal characteristics of temperature and precipitation as well as potential evapotranspiration are analyzed. The results are as follows. （1） The annual and four seasonal mean air temperature shows statistically significant increasing trend, the tendency is more significant in winter and fall. The warming in Lhasa river basin is most significant. （2） The precipitation is decreasing from the 1960s to the 1980s and increasing since the 1980s. From 1961 to 2005, the annual and four seasonal mean precipitation is increasing but not statistically significant, especially in fall and spring. The increasing precipitation rates are more pronounced in Niyangqu and Palong Zangbo river basins, the closer to the upper YR is, the less precipitation increasing rate would be. （3） The annual and four seasonal mean potential evapotranspiration has decreased, especially after the 1980s, and most of it happens in winter and spring. The decreasing trend is most significant in the middle YR and Nianchu river basin. （4） Compared with the Mt. Qomolangma region, Tibetan Plateau, China and global average, the magnitudes of warming trend over the YR basin since the 1970s exceed those areas in the same period, and compared with the Tibetan Plateau, the magnitudes of precipitation increasing and potential evapotranspiration decreasing are larger, suggesting that the YR basin is one of the most sensitive areas to global warming.

THE CAUSES AND DEVELOPMENTAL TREND OF DESERTIFICATION IN THE MIDDLE REACHES OF THE YARLUNG ZANGBO RIVER AND ITS TWO TRIBUTARIES IN XIZANG

The middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River and its two tributaries are an important development and construction region in Xizang(Tibet) in recent years, but the fast development of desertification has caused immense damages to its social and economic development, so the study on desertification in this region is significant. The paper studies the causes and development trend of desertification in this region through analysis of natural and human factors as well as their relationship. It can be concluded that desertification in the study area is one process which is accelerated and intensified by human activities on the basis of the slow natural desertification process. It is resulted from the dislocation of irrational and intensive human activities, fragile eec-environment and meagre natural resources, and tends to become more wide and severe.

Grain-size Characteristics of Sediments Formed Since 8600 yr B.P. in Middle Reaches of Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet and Their Paleoenvironmental Significance

Widespread aeolian sediments have been found in the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River, China, The grain-size characteristics of sediments from Cha＇er Section in the area were analyzed. The results show that the section include one stratum of paleo-mobile dunes, four strata of paleo-semi-fixed dunes, two strata of paleo-fixed dunes, one stratum of sandy immature soils. The paleo-mobile and paleo-semi-fixed dune sand in this section are similar to modem aeolian sand in either grain-size composition or Mz and c distribution. Compared the above types of dunes each other, the content of sand substance decreases, while the content of silt and clay increases for paleo-fixed dunes and sandy immature soils. Combined with age data for each stratum, the analysis shows that these strata are the products of climate changes and the evolution of aeolian landforms. The evolutionary sequence of the paleoclimate and of aeolian activities in the valley since 8600 yr B.P. reveals four stages： 8600-5700 yr B.P., when the paleoclimate was cold and dry, with strong winds, thereby activating dunes; 5700-3600 yr B.P., when it was warm and wet, with weak winds, causing dunes to undergo soil-forming processes; 3600-1900 yr B.P., when climate shifted from cold-dry with strong winds to warm-wet with weak winds, and activated dunes were fixed again; and 1900 yr B.P. -present, when the climate became fine, with weak winds, fixing dunes again.

Temporal and spatial variations of δ^18O in precipitation of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin

This paper reveals the temporal and spatial variations of stable isotope in precipitation of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin based on the variations of δ^18O in precipitation at four stations （Lhaze, Nugesha, Yangcun and Nuxia） in 2005. The results show that δ^18O of precipitation has distinct seasonal changes in the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin. The higher value of δ^18O occurs in spring prior to monsoon precipitation, and the lower value occurs during monsoon precipitation. From the spatial variations, with the altitude-effect and rainout process during moisture transport along the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley, δ^18O of precipitation is gradually depleted. Thus, δ^18O of precipitation decreases gradually from the downstream to the upstream, and the lapse rate of δ^18O in precipitation is approximately 0.34‰/100m and 0.7%J‰/100km for the two reasons. During monsoon precipitation, spatial variation of δ^18O in precipitation is dominated by the amount effect in the large scale synoptic condition.

PRESENT STATUS AND CAUSE OF LAND DESERTIFICATION IN THE YARLUNG ZANGBO RIVER BASIN

The Yarlung Zangbo River basin is a spacial zone in the south of Xizang, the types, distribution and causes of desertified lands have special features. The type, area, distribution and damage of desertification land in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin are firstly analysed in detail by using latest investigation information. According to the classification criteria of desertified land types and grades, the desertified land in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin can be divided into three grades and five types: fixed sand (dune) land, semi bare sand and gravel land, semi fixed sand (dune) land, base sand and gravel land, and shifting sand (dune) land. The desertified lands in the basin are mainly distributed in the wide valley floor and tributary junction area. The main factors affecting desertification are fragile eco environment, climate warming and drying and over exploitation of land resources. The man made factors leading to desertification in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin are over cutting and over grazing, dominated by over grazing.

Near-surface wind environment in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin,southern Tibetan Plateau

Aeolian processes have been studied extensively at low elevations,but have been relatively little studied at high elevations.Aeolian sediments are widely distributed in the Yarlung Zangbo River basin,southern Tibetan Plateau,which is characterized by low pressure and low temperature.Here,we comprehensively analyzed the wind regime using data since 1980 from 11 meteorological stations in the study area,and examined the interaction between the near-surface wind and aeolian environment.The wind environment exhibited significant spatial and temporal variation,and mean wind speed has generally decreased on both annual and seasonal bases since 1980,at an average of 0.181 m/(s•10a).This decrease resulted from the reduced contribution of maximum wind speed,and depended strongly on variations of the frequency of sand-driving winds.The drift potential and related parameters also showed obvious spatial and temporal variation,with similar driving forces for the wind environment.The strength of the wind regime affected the formation and development of the aeolian geomorphological pattern,but with variation caused by local topography and sediment sources.The drift potential and resultant drift direction were two key parameters,as they quantify the dynamic conditions and depositional orientation of the aeolian sediments.Wind affected the spatial variation in sediment grain size,but the source material and complex topographic effects on the near-surface wind were the underlying causes for the grain size distribution of aeolian sands.These results will support efforts to control aeolian desertification in the basin and improve our understanding of aeolian processes in high-elevation environments.

A long-term record(1995-2019)of the dynamics of land desertification in the middle reaches of Yarlung Zangbo River basin derived from Landsat data

Widespread desertification in the middle part of the Yarlung Zangbo River(YZR)basin is threatening the sustain-able development of this region.To capture this process,a method was proposed for large-scale desertification monitoring by using Landsat images from 1995 to 2019.The method used an integrated classification method combined with a hierarchical decision tree and nearest neighbor classifiers.The spatio-temporal dynamics of the desertification pattern were analyzed to assist in the detection of possible driving forces.Using validation samples collected from Google Earth high-resolution images and field investigations,the overall accuracy of the classification in 2019 was 92.3%with a Kappa coefficient of 0.84.The major results were:(1)total sandy land area in 2019 was 734.1 km^(2),which accounted for 3.7%of the study area,prominently distributed along the wide river valleys and inlets of tributaries with a strip and discontinuous pattern.Sandy land tends to be distributed in the southern aspect regions with lower elevations and that are closer to rivers;(2)sandy land areas showed two temporal stages:a gradual increase of 102.4 km^(2)from 1995 to 2015 and a large decrease of 106.8 km^(2)from 2015 to 2019;(3)newly increased sandy land was distributed in the YZR Valley,while the revegetation on sandy land occurred mainly in the Lhasa River basin and some regions in the YZR Valley;and(4)increased sandy land area of 142.1 km^(2)was mainly distributed in the southern band of the two rivers.Correspondingly,revegetation on sandy land was more effective on the northern banks of the river valleys.These findings provide guidance for implementing vegetation recovery on sandy lands and provide important insights for maintaining sustainable development.

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic characteristics of spring water in the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Southwest China

The Yarlung Zangbo River Basin(YZRB)is situated in the southern part of the Tibetan Plateau and remains in a mostly natural state.To understand the chemical characteristics of spring water and its controlling factors in the YZRB,68 sets of spring water samples were analyzed using hydrochemical and isotopic techniques.The spring water was found to be slightly alkaline with total dissolved solids(TDS)below 1000 mg L−1.Major ions were Mg2+,Ca2+,SO42−,and HCO3−.The spring water types in this basin were determined to be HCO3-Ca·Mg and SO4·Cl-Ca·Mg.Ion exchange and dissolution of carbonate,gypsum,and silicate were identified as the prevalent hydrogeochemical processes contributing and defining spring water chemistry in this basin.Saturation indices(SI)of most major minerals studied in this region were below zero,indicating that these minerals remain under-saturated in the spring water in this area.Overall,the rank of different processes in terms of their contribution to the chemical composition of spring water in the YZRB was carbonate weathering>evaporate dissolution>silicate weathering>precipitation input.The content of 18O in spring water ranged from−22.22‰to−14.08‰with a mean of−18.15‰.Samples collected below and close to the local and global meteoric water lines indicated that spring water in this area is derived from meteoric water with chemistry affected by evaporation.

Hydro-climatic Characteristics of Yarlung Zangbo River Basin since the Last Glacial Maximum

Global climate changes significantly impact the water condition of big rivers in glacierized high mountains. However,there is a lack of studies on hydrological changes within river basins caused by climate changes over a geological timescale due to the impossibility of direct observations. In this study, we examine the hydro-climatic variation of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin in the Tibet Plateau since the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM) by combining δ18 O proxy records in Indian and Omani caves with the simulated Indian summer monsoon, surface temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration and runoff via the Community Climate System Model and the reconstructed glacier coverage via the Parallel Ice Sheet Model. The mean river runoff was kept at a low level of 145 billion cubic meters per year until an abrupt increase at a rate of 8.7 million cubic meters per year in the B?lling-Aller?d interval(BA). The annual runoff reached a maximum of 250 billion cubic meters in the early Holocene and then reduced to the current value of 180 billion cubic meters at a rate of 6.4 million cubic meters per year. The low runoff in the LGM and Heinrich Stadial 1(HS1) is likely attributed to such a small contribution of precipitation to runoff and the large glacier cover. The percentage of precipitation to runoff was only 20%during the LGM and HS1. Comparison of glacier area among different periods indicates that the fastest deglaciation occurred during the late HS1, when nearly 60% of glacier area disappeared in the middle reach, 50% in the upper reach,and 30% in the lower reach. The rapid deglaciation and increasing runoff between the late HS1 and BA may have accelerated widespread ice-dam breaches and led to extreme outburst flood events. Combining local geological proxy records and regional simulations could be a useful approach for the study of paleo-hydrologic variations in big river basins.

Isotopic effect of runoff in the Yarlung Zangbo River

This paper mainly analyzed the isotopic effect of precipitation in the Yarlung Zangbo River.On the whole,the isotopic compositions of most water samples fall on the upper right of the global meteoric water line.According to δD and δ18O data of the samples,the precipitation equation is figured out as δD=8 δ18O+10,showing that they are derived from precipitation but have experienced intensive evaporation.With obvious region-continental effect(a continuous depletion in heavy isotopes in water bodies occurs with increasing distance from the coast),the water presents a reducing trend of δD and δ18O westwards and southwards.Altitudinal effect is evident here,occur-ring in both trunk stream and main branches of the Yarlung Zangbo River.The distribution of water isotopic compo-sitions is concerned with the movement of precipitation clouds from the Bay of Bengal and the Nujiang River and is affected by the topographic and climatic conditions of the Tibetan Plateau.

The Status Assessment and Preliminary Risk Assessment of Total Mercury in Sediments from Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River

The occurrence and accumulation of total mercury (T-Hg) in sediments collected from the Yarlung Zangbo River (YLZB),the Lhasa River,the Niyang River and the Palongzangbu River were analyzed and the soil samples simultaneously collected from the bank were employed as control.Meanwhile,pollution status and potential ecological risk of Hg were calculated and assessed using index of geoaccumulation ( I geo ) and potential ecological risk assessment method (Er) in this study.The results showed that the T-Hg concentrations in sediments at eight sections of YLZB ranged from 4.23 to 48.1 μg/kg with mean concentration of 25.1 μg/kg,which was higher than background Hg value of soils in Tibet.T-Hg concentrations in sediments at three typical segments of YLZB were all significantly higher than those in soils collected from its bank (P<0.05).The Igeo and E r indexes revealed that the T-Hg pollution levels were slight pollution in two sections and moderate ecological risk in six sections of YLZB.Hg pollution risks also existed in the sediments of partial sections of the Lhasa River and the Niyang River,and slightly moderate Hg contamination with high ecological risk was presented in Lhasa urban district.The level of Hg in sediments of YLZB showed a notable spatial distribution characteristic with a trend of increasing firstly and then declining.Human activities played an important role in increasing Hg content in sediments of the river.

Wind erodibility indices of aeolian sandy soils impacted by different vegetation restoration:a case study from the Shannan valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River

Controlling aeolian desertification is a key ecological target on the Tibetan Plateau,especially within the widespread river valleys.Vegetation recovery can change the near-soil surface characteristics,which thus may influence wind erodibility of soils.However,these potential effects are not sufficiently evaluated for aeolian sandy soils.This study selected the Shannan valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River on the southern Tibetan Plateau as a case to investigate the variations in wind erodibility of aeolian sandy soils impacted by different vegetation restoration,since many ecological measures have been implemented in recent decades in the river valley.Eight vegetated sandy lands with different restoration types and ages and two bare sandy lands(as controls)were chosen as test sites.Four vegetated sandy lands were covered by Artemisia wellbyi,Hedysarum scoparium,Sophora moorcroftiana,and Populus L.with the similar restoration age of 10 years.For Sophora moorcroftiana and Populus L.communities,two restoration ages of 6 and over 30 years were also selected respectively.Wind erodibility was reflected by wind erodible fraction(EF),mean weight diameter of dry aggregates(MWD),capillary water capacity(CWC),soil cohesion(CS),and soil penetration resistance(PR)from different aspects.A comprehensive wind erodibility index(CWEI)was further produced by a weighted summation method to combine those five indices together and comprehensively quantify the effects of vegetation restoration on wind erodibility of aeolian sandy soils.The results showed that revegetation was efficient to reduce wind erodibility of aeolian sandy soils.EF generally decreased,while MWD,CWC,CS,and PR increased after vegetation restoration on the aeolian sandy lands.The CWEI of vegetated sandy lands varied greatly from 0.850 to 0 under different restoration types and ages and decreased by 14.4%to 100%compared to the control.Under the four different restoration types,Populus L.had the relatively minimum CWEI,followed by Artemisia wellbyi,Sophora moorcroftiana and Hedysarum scoparium.With succession from 6 to over 30 years,CWEI gradually declined for both the Populus L.and Sophora moorcroftiana restored sandy lands.The decreases in wind erodibility(reflected by CWEI)on vegetated sandy lands were dominantly controlled by the improvement of soil texture and the increases of organic matter and calcium carbonate contents with vegetation restoration.The combined vegetation measure of Populus L.mixed with shrubs and grasses was suggested as the optimal restoration type for mitigating wind erodibility of aeolian sandy soils in the Shannan valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River.

Floristic Study of Vascular Plants in Typical Plant Communities in the Middle and Upper Reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River

[Objective] Species composition and flora of vascular plants in the middle and upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River were analyzed,to provide scientific basis for the estimation and protection of plant diversity,construction of ecological security shelter for the Tibetan Plateau.[Methods] In the middle and upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River,quadrat (line transect) method was applied to investigate the phytocoenoses in sample plots,and relative literature was used to analyze the floristic composition and floristic element of vascular plants in the middle and upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River.[Results]① There are 96 species (including subspecies and variations),69 genera of 35 vascular plant families,accounting for 16.83%,5.48%,1.66% and 11.63%,2.02%,0.31% of total vascular plant families,genera and species in Tibet and China.② There are 24 monotypic-genus families,accounting for 68.57% of the total family number in the local area;22 monotypic-species families,accounting for 62.86% of the total family number in the local area.Local flora shows the characteristics of ancient relict,such as Euphorbiaceae,Rubiaceae,Liliaceae and Ranunculaceae,they are all ancient primitive groups of the third flora and the fourth flora.③ Local vascular plant genera fall into 10 areal types and 8 variations.④ Temperate elements are much more than tropical elements,R/T is 0.19,indicating that vascular plants have typical temperate nature and residual tropical nature.There are only a few endemic genera,but more endemic species to the local area,and these species are closely related,of which there are some transitional species,indicating that local flora is too young to experience more differentiation and specialization.⑤ There are 24 Chinese endemic species,accounting for 25% of total number of species in the local area;among which there are 12 endemic species to Tibet,accounting for 50% of endemic species to China,12.5% of total number of species in the local area.Four key wild plant species are included in the second batch of national key protection.[Conclusions]① There are scarce plant groups in the local area.② Among the obvious advantages,single-genus (species) families possess the absolute advantage,and the flora has ancient origins.③ The local flora has diversified distribution types,and the complicated geographical elements.④ Temperate species possess obvious advantages,and the flora is young.⑤ Rich unique and rare species have high species diversity protection and research value.

Analysis on Landscape Pattern in the Upper and Middle Reaches of Yarlung Zangbo River:Taking Zhongba County,Angren County, Rikaze City as Example

Taking Zhongba County, Angren County, Rikaze City located at the Upper and Middle Reaches of Yarlung Zangbo River as landscape units , this paper studied the difference of the landscape pattern under various degrees of human disturbance in the three areas. The results showed that： the three areas all reflected the same characteristic of landscape pattern in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the natural landscapes were in the absolute dominant position. However, from Zhangba to Rikaze, with human disturbance intensity increasing, anthropogenic features of landscapes became more and more outstanding, In Zhongba, the landscape structure appeared to be simpler with coarse grains and a less rich diversity, Conversely, in Rikaze, the landscape showed a complicated shape with finer grains and a relatively richer diversity, This reflected that the impact of human activities to natural landscape behaved a gradually-growing trend from the upper reach to the middle one of Yarlung Zangbo River Basin.

Basic Characteristics of Waterfalls in the Yarlung Zangbo River

The Great Bent in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet houses the largest fluvial gorge in the world. On October 18, 1998, the Chinese government named the gorge the Grand Canyon of the Yarlung Zangbo. Later, from October to December, the first trekking exploration through the canyon was successfully conducted by a group of Chinese scientists. In the meantime, the scientists carfled out a multi-disciplinary and comprehensive survey and made many discoveries in the region.