The Legally Permissible Traditional Customary Uses of Wildlife and Forests under Kenyan Law

Kenya like most of sub-Saharan Africa is reliant predominantly on agriculture and natural resources;which include land, water, minerals and fisheries, but the most dominant of which are wildlife and forestry. Unlike minerals which are by law vested in the government and can only be extracted by it and not the citizenry, wildlife and forestry are resources that the citizens may utilize in their day to day lives to meet their needs. Apart from their consumptive uses, there are also non-consumptive uses and values of wild animals and forests;such as their intrinsic ecological value as gene banks, as well as their scenic value for viewing. These are essentially conventional values and uses. They are largely formal and universal ones that are universally obtaining across the world irrespective of the levels of civilization or cultural identity, and are even compatible with modernity. Apart from these, there are some wildlife and forestry uses which are unique to the typical African way of life as part of old traditional customs that have existed from earlier times. These are what are in this paper referred to as “traditional customary uses”. These uses are largely informal, rudimentary and archaic. They are nevertheless critical in the endemic African way of life and represent the inextricable rudimentary technologically bereft relationship between the African people and their natural resources. Under the country’s existing laws, some of these uses are prohibited and criminal sanctions prescribed to enforce their proscription, hence cannot be enjoyed or practiced. There are however others that the law has either expressly allowed, or not prohibited, hence may be lawfully enjoyed or practiced. These are what this paper has referred to as the legally permissible traditional customary uses;and are the ones that are its subject. As for wildlife, in the year 1977, the Kenya Government by a Legal Notice in the Kenya Gazette imposed a ban on all forms of hunting of wildlife. The ban is still in force. This therefore means that hunting is illegal, as legal prohibition has in effect prohibited all and any form of off-take or killing of wildlife. By implication therefore, under Kenyan law, only non-consumptive uses of wildlife may be enjoyed, and not the consumptive ones. These include viewing as well as socio-cultural and spiritual uses. In Kenya therefore, the only permissible traditional customary use of wildlife is its non-consumptive use for socio-cultural and spiritual purposes;subject of course to the existing legal prohibition on witchcraft under the Witchcraft Act (Cap 67 Laws of Kenya). This piece of legislation has prohibited the practice and promotion of witchcraft. This in effect means that the socio-cultural and spiritual uses of wildlife though legally permissible, will be enjoyed, provided it is not for witchcraft purposes. With regard to forests, this author has identified the following five as their legally permissible traditional customary uses under Kenyan law: Socio-cultural and spiritual (consumptive and non-consumptive) use, other than for witchcraft;use in herbal folk medicine, other than for witchcraft;use for human food and livestock fodder;use for firewood;and use as raw material in construction and traditional craft. Notably, in Kenya, traditional customary use is subject to the existing legal prohibition on witchcraft. Further, while it is the legally permissible use category that is the focus of this paper, the author nevertheless discusses the prohibited traditional customary uses as well. This paper is based on literature survey as well as data obtained from the author’s previous research whose primary data and findings have been published in recent times. It also draws from the documented research and diverse documented views of other commentators on the subject.

Customary Law to Acquire Full Force of Law

A number of the constitutions limit recognition of customary law to those customs and/or usages,which have the“force of law”in their respective territories.The question as to whether a custom has the“force of law”may be variously interpreted depending upon whether it is the community,the courts,or the legislature,which has the power to identify when a custom becomes law.Determining just when a custom acquires the“force of law”is of much importance for its wider recognition and application.This in turn is linked to the question of proof of customary law.A key aspect of Papua New Guinea(PNG)’s approach is that it brought the multiplicity of regimes of different cultures under a national framework and has given a place to customary law which is now constitutionally recognized as superior to the inherited common law.It places the local and traditional over the inherited and imported law,with the constitution placed over both.In this paper I examine customary law as in the context of the PNG Constitution.

Expansion of traditional land-use and deforestation:a case study of an adat forest in the Kandilo Subwatershed,East Kalimantan,Indonesia

Deforestation issues are more problematic when indigenous(adat) communities,living within a forest,have lived there for many generations.These adat communities,who employ traditional land-use,are frequently accused of encroaching on the forest.To understand existing and future trends in the spatial patterns of the expansion of traditional land-use and deforestation,we conducted a case study in the Kandilo Subwatershed using mixed methods with image interpretation,spatial modelling and sociocultural surveys to examine the interrelationships between physical conditions,community characteristics and traditional land-use expansion.We investigated community characteristics through household interviews,communication with key informants,and discussions with focusgroups.By using an area production model,we were able to analyze the effect of improved farming systems,policy intervention and law enforcement on traditional land-use expansion and deforestation.Based on our examination of a 20-year period of traditional land-use activities in adat forests,the evidence indicated that the steeper the slope of the land and the farther the distance from the village,the lower the rate of deforestation.Our study found that customary law,regulating traditional land-use,played an important role in controlling deforestation and land degradation.We conclude that the integration of land allocation,improved farming practices and enforcement of customary law are effective measures to improve traditional land productivity while avoiding deforestation and land degradation.

Village Council and Administration of Justice:A Study Among the Dimasa Kacharis of Assam

Village council is a socio-political organisation that is the connection between people who relate themselves to each other creates an arrangement of persons that makes unit.It is a part of the large social organisation which refers to the institution which maintains rules and regulation of the society.For instance,stability of every social structure is needed to have the connection between the people who relate themselves to each other creates an arrangement of persons that makes unit.The organisation stands for juridical rights of the people’s safeguard and these juridical obligations are inferred in them.Village organisation coincides as in most cases that villages act as territorial social as well as political unit.The Dimasas inhabited in plains of Assam also have their traditional village council which acts as a socio-political unit into their parochial life.In this paper,an attempt has been made to evaluate the function of village council for the maintenance of peace and smooth functioning of the socio-cultural life of the Dimasa Kacharis inhabiting in a rural context of Assam.

在省例与习俗之间:清代闽东契约书写格式中的法律意识

省例是清代国家律例的重要补充形式,上承国家法宗旨,下接地方习俗。同治《福建省例》对乡村绝卖、活卖或典当田宅等契约书写均有固定模式,约束契约书写格式。但民间社会书写契约时并未完全遵从省例,保留有明显的习俗痕迹。闽东文书无论是绝卖缴税的红契还是活卖或典当不缴税的白契,多为单契。闽东乡村女性立契的形式,不仅反映了省例与习俗交织互存的关联,也显示出人们在乡村买卖田房时存有国家在场的意识。

彝寨地权习惯法的演进及其现实意义探析——基于滇中北部地区武定县S村的考察

武定S村为古老的彝族村落,对家庭承包的集体土地和村公共用地的使用权习惯规则,是其传统文化的重要组成部分。这些土地权利习惯规则,既有彝族传统习惯法的影响,又具鲜明的区域特点,对周边地区其他民族的土地利用习惯产生了重要影响。在多民族经济、文化的交流、碰撞、借鉴与融合中,其传统的土地权利习惯规则历经发展与变迁,仍然保留了一些较有特色的习惯。通过总结这些土地使用的习惯内涵与特点,探讨其对国家法律的补充功能,对促进当地社会的稳定与发展有积极的现实意义。

依法治藏背景下西藏传统法律文化的现代化路径探析

西藏传统法律文化很长一段时期在维系西藏社会秩序稳定、解决民众纠纷、促进社会发展等方面发挥着十分重要的作用,但藏传佛教的深刻影响、习惯法与国家法之间的冲突、以及部分传统法律文化缺乏理性的法律观念阻碍了西藏传统法律文化的发展。在依法治藏背景下,如果能对影响西藏传统法律文化的藏传佛教文化进行合理引导,对具有深厚民意基础的习惯法进行调处,对西藏传统法律文化中的优秀思想进行吸收和利用,让古老的传统法律文化重新焕发生机与活力,则能够促进西藏传统法律文化为西藏社会发展服务,有利于依法治藏的顺利推进。

生态文明视域下湘西少数民族的制度性生态民俗

制度性生态民俗是指以制度规则为主要内容的生态民俗,属于非正式制度的范畴,相对于普通生态民俗而言,具有规范性、补充性和调整性等典型特征。以调整对象和规制目的为依据,可将湘西的制度性生态民俗大致分为三大类型:一是主要调整“人-神”关系的自然禁忌型生态民俗,如苗族的枫树禁忌民俗;二是主要调整“民-民”关系的村民公约型生态民俗,如禁止越界砍伐林木的苗族榔规;三是主要调整“人-天(自然)”关系的技术规则型生态民俗,如侗族的“林粮间作”民俗。在新时代推进生态文明建设和中国传统文化传承发展,应增强对制度性生态民俗的文化自觉,推进湘西少数民族传统生态文化的创造性转化和创新性发展。

民国时期水利法制之转型

民国时期,随着西方水利科学知识和法治理念与制度的传入,中国水利法制开始近代化的摸索与尝试。民国时期水利法制近代化主要体现在三个方面:一是民国政府走出传统窠臼,吸收西方依法治水的科学理念,参酌固有习惯,初步构建以国家法、地方法规、民间习惯法为主体的多元水利法律体系;二是打破延续千年来中央水利行政机构杂乱无章、权责不符的局面,开创从中央到地方的统一水利行政系统;三是创新水权制度,明确水权归属,并建立多元的水权纠纷近代化解决机制。民国时期的水利法制既积极吸收和引进西方近代先进水利法制思想和实践,又保留传统水利社会的一些内容,在“变”与“不变”中迈向近代化转型之路。

分家析产纠纷中习惯法的司法适用——基于625份裁判文书的研究

习惯法运用于司法中能够弥补制定法的空白,有助于实现法律效果和社会效果的统一。对625份分家析产案件裁判文书的分析显示,习惯法的司法适用空间广阔,同时,存在以法官主动适用习惯法为主、认可当事人的援引为辅、当事人对习惯法的援引率不高、以间接性适用和模糊性适用为主等特征。其根源在于习惯法自身的特性、适用主体的差异性以及适用程序的薄弱性。对此,在适用前提上,应强化习惯法在民事审判中的法源地位,整合习惯法与国家制定法的规定;在适用技术上,应确立习惯法司法适用的识别标准,完善习惯法司法适用的解释,加强裁判文书的说理,细化适用的程序规则;在适用保障上,应健全考核激励机制,完善司法责任制,优化诉前调解机制,共促习惯法在分家析产案件中的规范适用。

中国古代成文法起源探讨--兼论王权与神权之冲突和妥协

梁启超将是否“成文”作为成文法与习惯法的区别,是对西方成文法概念的误读。依据成文法、习惯法的相关定义,二者的区别在于法律效力的产生方式,由此战国时期的“铸刑书”“铸刑鼎”“造竹刑”等不能算作是成文法。盘庚在迁都过程中试图改变殷商早期所延续的习惯法,因而至少在盘庚时期便出现了成文法的萌芽。成文法的产生是王权不断扩大的结果,这一过程并不是取代习惯法的过程,习惯法依旧在国家治理过程中发挥着不可替代的作用。

论少数民族习惯法的规范化困境及其应对

少数民族习惯法是民族文化的一部分,与民族地区的法治建设关系紧密。有效发挥民族习惯法的作用,离不开对民族习惯法的规范化。在民族法治、良法善治、文化更新等要求下,民族习惯法的规范化势在必行。少数民族习惯法面临的人治文化束缚、法治文化欠缺、相对独立性与价值问题,阻碍少数民族习惯法的规范化。以民族自治、合法化、价值与思维规范为路径,能有效应对少数民族习惯法的规范化困境。

法治现代化进程下藏族习惯法的法律规制路径探析

藏族习惯法作为藏族社会传统法治文化的一部分,在藏族社会经济发展和社会稳定等方面具有重要作用,而其存在和发展也对国家法治现代化在民族地区的建设程度产生了一定程度的削弱,因此有必要对藏族习惯法进行法律规制。针对藏族习惯法在面临国家法治现代化建设时所面临的转型困境,应从加强民族立法、对民间调解机制的引导以及推进法治教育等层面,来加强对藏族习惯法的法律规制。

气候变化背景下海平面上升对基线的法律影响

《联合国海洋法公约》没有明确规定气候变化背景下海平面上升对基线的法律影响。但《联合国海洋法公约》关于基线的规定用语较为抽象和模糊,并且存在若干例外情况。因此,短期内可以通过适度宽泛地解释相关条款的方式固定基线。长期而言,对该问题需关注国家实践的发展,探讨是否形成解释和适用《联合国海洋法公约》条款的嗣后协议或嗣后惯例,或者产生应对气候变化的新的基线制度。目前实践的整体趋势向固定基线和保护海岸线的方向发展,但表明该立场的国家主要集中于小岛屿国家、大洋洲和东南亚国家,其他国家和地区的实践较为有限。因此,在嗣后协定和习惯国际法识别方面还需相对谨慎。在规则的发展过程中,还可以从国家责任的角度探寻解决方法,与研究问题最为相关的是不可抗力和危难两种不法性排除的情形,但其适用需要满足较为严格的条件。

生态文明建设视域下哈尼族环境习惯法的当代价值

生态文明建设是国家为实现人与自然和谐共生作出的重要战略部署,其所含的“尊重自然、顺应自然、保护自然”与哈尼族环境习惯法的理念与内容相契合。文章以生态文明建设为视角,研究哈尼族环境习惯法的具体内容及其对生态文明建设的积极促进,主张通过立法、司法、行政等领域进一步挖掘哈尼族习惯法的当代价值,激发区域内成员环境保护的主体意识,积极实践以保护生态环境,助力民族地区生态文明建设。

基层党组织对少数民族习惯法的运用:铸牢中华民族共同体意识的创新路径

中国共产党站在新的历史起点提出了铸牢中华民族共同体意识这一事关长远发展的战略思想,并在实践中领导和推动着其的实现。党的基层组织是推进少数民族地区将铸牢中华民族共同体意识落到实处的关键力量。在少数民族地区,基层党组织如何找到铸牢中华民族共同体意识的有效路径是我们亟须思考的现实问题,而立足于对少数民族文化、传统、习俗的尊重,合理科学利用少数民族习惯法,实现基层党组织与习惯法的良性互动,是铸牢中华民族共同体意识的一条创新路径。

论全球税收治理背景下习惯国际税法的演化与发展

作为国际税法的渊源之一,习惯国际税法的构成要件包括国家实践和法律确信两大方面。传统的习惯国际税法规则是各国在长期的税收实践中逐步形成的,具有自发性、分散性和偶然性。但是,在当今全球税收治理背景下,习惯国际税法获得了新的发展机遇。一方面,全球税收治理促进了国际税收条约的发展和国际税收软法的勃兴,而这些渊源能够为习惯国际税法的存在产生证明作用。另一方面,全球税收治理能够推动各国形成普遍一致的国家实践和法律确信,从而促进习惯国际税法的产生。习惯国际税法一旦形成,将对各国产生普遍的法律约束力,而解决国际税收问题的需要和国际社会的公认是其效力的来源和依据。在当今税收条约主导、国际软法勃兴的全球税收治理机制中,习惯国际税法仍然具有不可替代的独特价值。

习惯法的冲突之维与破解之径——基于C县苗族椰规的乡土考察

各民族文化衍生了多元习惯法治理模式,然基于历史原因和当下乡村振兴之故,传统习惯法已然发生了横向与纵向的多维冲突,尚难高效调适当下各民族民间内生秩序。对传统习惯法的改革势在必行,这是由社会演绎的历史逻辑和各民族发展的内在规律决定的。本文以C县苗族椰规习惯法为考察对象,从历史溯源、研究概况、冲突面向、案例分析、衡平路径、理论提炼等方面深入研究,以期证成法治文化与民族文化在民族地区耦合的必然,差异性地方性知识与共同性国家法治治理体系在民族治理事务的理论范畴、实践场域具有辩证统一的关系,最终析出改革后的习惯法能与社会主义核心价值观同频、与国家治理体系同步。在党的领导下,应科学引导民族习惯法改革,进而激发乡土秩序自我调控的能力,实现习惯法对民族地区社会事务治理的经验供给和逻辑补缺。

国际投资仲裁中的东道国安全例外抗辩与中国对策研究

当下,人类面临的安全问题更加多元和复杂。面对“不安全常态化”,部分东道国频繁以保护国家安全为名对外国投资采取特别管制措施,并在争端解决中试图援引安全例外进行抗辩以寻求义务豁免。在国际投资仲裁实践中,东道国援引安全例外寻求抗辩主要是依据非自裁性安全例外条款、自裁性安全例外条款和习惯国际法三类。本文对三类情形进行类型化研究,并归纳仲裁庭裁判逻辑及其可能的演进趋势。本文建议中国投资者从明确援引条款及其性质、注重习惯国际法的解释与适用及做好配套措施准备三方面予以应对,对东道国对安全例外抗辩可能的滥用或误用予以必要反制,从而更好保障中国双向投资利益。