Parametric optimization of friction stir welding parameters of marine grade aluminium alloy using response surface methodology

Friction stir welding between AA5052-H32aluminium plates is performed by central composite design technique of response surface methodology.It is found that the welding parameters such as tool pin profile,tool rotational speed,welding speed,and tool tilt angle play a major role in deciding the joint characteristics.The joints fabricated using tapered square pin profile tool with a tool rotational speed of600r/min,welding speed of65mm/min,and tool tilt angle of1.5°result in an unexpected weld efficiency of93.51%.Mathematical models are developed to map the correlation between the parameters and responses(ultimate tensile strength and elongation)and these models are optimized to maximize the ultimate tensile strength of the friction stir welded joint.Response plots generated from the mathematical models are used to interpret the interaction effects of the welding parameters on the response variables.Adequacy of the developed models is validated using analysis of variance(ANOVA)technique.Results from the confirmatory experiments plotted in scatter diagram show a good agreement with predicted models.Different grain structures in various zones of the weld are examined by observing the micro and macro structures of the weld.

Modeling the Effects of Tool Shoulder and Probe Profile Geometries on Friction Stirred Aluminum Welds Using Response Surface Methodology

The present paper discusses the modeling of tool geometry effects on the friction stir aluminum welds using response surface methodology. The friction stir welding tools were designed with different shoulder and tool probe geometries based on a design matrix. The matrix for the tool designing was made for three types of tools, based on three types of probes, with three levels each for defining the shoulder surface type and probe profile geometries. Then, the effects of tool shoulder and probe geometries on friction stirred aluminum welds were experimentally investigated with respect to weld strength, weld cross section area, grain size of weld and grain size of thermo-mechanically affected zone. These effects were modeled using multiple and response surface regression analysis. The response surface regression modeling were found to be appropriate for defining the friction stir weldment characteristics.

Effect of welding speed on the material flow patterns in friction stir welding of AZ31 magnesium alloy

The clear zigzag-line pattern on transverse cross sections can be used to explain the formation mechanism of the weld nugget when friction stir welded AZ31 magnesium alloy without any other insert material is used as mark. It provides a simple and useful method to research the joining mechanism of friction stir welding. The rotation speed is kept at 1000 r/min and the welding speed changes from 120 mm/min to 600 mm/min. The macrostructure on the transverse cross section was divided into several parts by faying surface. The results show that the shape and formation procedure of the weld nugget change with the welding speed. There are two main material flows in the weld nugget： one is from the advancing side and the other is from the retreating side. A simple model on the weld nugget formation of FSW is presented in this article.

Parametric optimization of friction stir welding process of age hardenable aluminum alloys-ANFIS modeling

A comparative approach was performed between the response surface method(RSM) and the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system(ANFIS) to enhance the tensile properties, including the ultimate tensile strength and the tensile elongation, of friction stir welded age hardenable AA6061 and AA2024 aluminum alloys. The effects of the welding parameters, namely the tool rotational speed, welding speed, axial load and pin profile, on the ultimate tensile strength and the tensile elongation were analyzed using a three-level, four-factor Box-Behnken experimental design. The developed design was utilized to train the ANFIS models. The predictive capabilities of RSM and ANFIS were compared based on the root mean square error, the mean absolute error, and the correlation coefficient based on the obtained data set. The results demonstrate that the developed ANFIS models are more effective than the RSM model.

Optimization of process parameters of aluminum alloy AA 2014-T6 friction stir welds by response surface methodology

The heat treatable aluminum-copper alloy AA2014 finds wide application in the aerospace and defence industry due to its high strength-toweight ratio and good ductility. Friction stir welding(FSW) process, an emerging solid state joining process, is suitable for joining this alloy compared to fusion welding processes. This work presents the formulation of a mathematical model with process parameters and tool geometry to predict the responses of friction stir welds of AA 2014-T6 aluminum alloy, viz yield strength, tensile strength and ductility. The most influential process parameters considered are spindle speed, welding speed, tilt angle and tool pin profile. A four-factor, five-level central composite design was used and a response surface methodology(RSM) was employed to develop the regression models to predict the responses.The mechanical properties, such as yield strength(YS), ultimate tensile strength(UTS) and percentage elongation(%El), are considered as responses. Method of analysis of variance was used to determine the important process parameters that affect the responses. Validation trials were carried out to validate these results. These results indicate that the friction stir welds of AA 2014-T6 aluminum alloy welded with hexagonal tool pin profile have the highest tensile strength and elongation, whereas the joints fabricated with conical tool pin profile have the lowest tensile strength and elongation.

Development of processing windows for friction stir spot welding of aluminium Al5052/copper C27200 dissimilar materials

Friction stir spot welding technique was used to join dissimilar combinations of aluminium alloy(Al5052)with copperalloy(C27200)and friction stir spot welding windows such as tool rotational speed–dwell time and tool rotational speed?plungedepth diagrams for effective joining of these materials were developed.Using a central composite design model,empirical relationswere developed to predict the changes in tensile shear failure load values and interface hardness of the joints with three processparameters such as tool rotational speed,plunge depth and dwell time.The adequacy of the developed model was verified usingANOVA analysis at95%confidence level.Response surface methodology was used to optimize the developed model to maximizetensile strength and minimize interface hardness.A high tensile shear failure load value of3850N and low interface hardness valueof HV81was observed for joints made under optimum conditions,and validation experiments confirmed the high predictability ofthe developed model with error less than2%.The operating windows developed shall act as reference maps for future designengineers in choosing appropriate friction stir spot welding process parameter values to obtain good joints.

Correlation between welding and hardening parameters of friction stir welded joints of 2017 aluminum alloy

An experimental study was undertaken to express the hardening Swift law according to friction stir welding （FSW） aluminum alloy 2017. Tensile tests of welded joints were run in accordance with face centered composite design. Two types of identified models based on least square method and response surface method were used to assess the contribution of FSW independent factors on the hardening parameters. These models were introduced into finite-element code ＂Abaqus＂ to simulate tensile tests of welded joints. The relative average deviation criterion, between the experimental data and the numerical simulations of tension-elongation of tensile tests, shows good agreement between the experimental results and the predicted hardening models. These results can be used to perform multi-criteria optimization for carrying out specific welds or conducting numerical simulation of plastic deformation of forming process of FSW parts such as hydroforming, bending and forging.

Predictive Models for the Ultimate Tensile and Yield Stresses Occurring in Joints of Untreated Friction Stir Welded 2017AA (ENAW-AlCu4MgSi) Plates

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) processes have been applied in numerous industrial fields and broadly embraced by the research community. In this paper, given three FSW process parameters, namely, the tool rotation speed N (rpm), the tool traverse feed F(mm/min) and the tool pin/shoulder diameters ratio (r%), we purpose to ascertain their impact on joints Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) and joints Yield Stress (YS). The FSW has been executed using 6 mm thick rolled plate in 2017AA. For the design of experiments strategy, we conducted a face centered central composite strategy through which 18 trials have been executed. Then, we utilized the RSM technique to formulate the predictive models which are relevant to the (UTS) and (YS) outputs. Accordingly, the study has pointed out the prevalence of the tool rotation speed and the tool diameters ratio factors;however, the tool traverse feed (F) was found trivial and statistically insignificant. Likewise, the sensitivity analysis regarding factors N, F and r% on both (UTS) and (YS) has exhibited the dominance of the tool diameters ratio (r%), indistinctively.

Optimizing the micro-arc oxidation (MAO) parameters to attain coatings with minimum porosity and maximum hardness on the friction stir welded AA6061 aluminium alloy welds

Micro-arc oxidation(MAO) technique is capable of producing dense oxide films on the aluminium alloy surface. This oxide film protects the aluminium alloy from the corrosion attack for longer duration.Empirical relationships were derived to evaluate the MAO coating properties(porosity and hardness) by incorporating very important MAO parameters(current density, inter-electrode distance and oxidation time). MAO parameters were also optimized to achieve coatings with minimum porosity and maximum hardness. Further, the effect of MAO parameters on coating characteristics was analysed. From the results, it is found that the current density has greater influence on the responses than the other two parameters.

Corrosion performance of friction stir welded AA2024 aluminium alloy under salt fog conditions

Aluminium alloy（AA） 2024 is an important engineering material due to its widespread use in the aerospace industry. However, it is very prone to corrosion attack in chloride containing media. In the present investigation, AA2024 aluminium alloy rolled plates of 5 mm in thickness were friction stir welded. Corrosion performances of the specimens were evaluated by conducting salt fog tests in Na Cl solution at different p H values, chloride ion concentrations and spraying time. In addition, an empirical relationship was established to predict the corrosion rate of friction stir welds of AA2024 aluminium alloy. A central composite rotatable design including three factors and five levels was used to minimize the number of experiments. Response surface methodology（RSM） was used to develop the relationship. The corrosion rate decreased under neutral p H conditions. The corrosion rate increased in acidic and basic conditions. It was also found that the corrosion rate decreased with the increase of spraying time, but the corrosion tended to be uniform with the increment of time and with the increase in the chloride ion concentration, and the corrosion rate increased in the salt spray corrosion test.

Comparison of RSM with ANN in predicting tensile strength of friction stir welded AA7039 aluminium alloy joints

磨擦搅动(FSW ) 焊接是一种创新稳固的州的加入技术并且在太空，栏杆，为加入铝的汽车、海洋的工业，镁，锌和铜被采用了合金。FSW 过程参数象工具那样旋转速度，焊接速度，轴的力量，在决定焊接质量起一个主要作用。二个方法，反应表面方法论和人工的神经网络被用来预言磨擦的张力的强度搅动焊接 AA7039 铝合金。实验基于三个因素被进行，三水平、中央的合成的脸与完整的复制技术集中了设计，并且数学模型被开发。敏感分析被执行识别批评参数。通过反应表面方法论获得的结果与通过人工的神经网络的那些相比。

基于发射率修正模型的红外测温补偿方法

红外测温由于受到被测物体表面发射率的影响,温度测量结果存在一定误差。通过分析表面粗糙度对表面红外发射率的影响,提出一种基于发射率修正模型的红外测温补偿方法。首先,基于红外测温原理,建立针对表面粗糙度修正的红外测温补偿算法;其次,为确定红外测温补偿方法中表面发射率修正,通过双尺度粗糙表面建立粗糙表面发射率修正模型;最后,为验证提出红外测温补偿方法的可行性,在搅拌摩擦焊焊缝红外测温实验中对比了补偿算法前后测量结果,结果表明:红外测温最大误差由2.783℃降低为1.058℃,平均测量误差由1.683℃降低为0.649℃,验证了所提出的红外测温补偿方法可以提高红外测温精度。

CFRP/金属异质材料摩擦连接技术研究进展

碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料与金属连接的异质构件是实现航空航天装备结构轻量化的有效途径之一。搅拌摩擦焊作为一种低热输入的固相焊接技术,可实现碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料与金属异种材料的高质量连接。本文总结了近年来碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料与金属搅拌摩擦焊方向的国内外研究成果,从基于搅拌摩擦焊的工艺探索、界面连接机制和接头性能调控3方面进行了系统性的综述,并从碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料与金属异质结构的多种连接技术联合使用,提高接头疲劳性能和探究接头腐蚀机理等方面展望了其未来的主要研究方向。

铝/镁异种材料搅拌摩擦焊工艺参数优化及组织特征分析

利用光学显微镜和电子背散射衍射仪研究1060铝/AZ31B镁异种材料搅拌摩擦焊接头的组织特征,并采用Box-Behnken方法建立响应面模型,对焊接工艺参数偏置量ρ、转速ω、焊速v进行优化。结果表明:热输入过高或过低时,接头焊核区的铝、镁两种材料混合不充分,甚至会产生孔洞;搅拌针偏置量会影响受搅拌的铝和镁材料的体积,当搅拌针偏置时铝和镁材料体积不均匀,也会导致焊核区的铝和镁混合不充分。通过分析响应面模型,结果显示焊速对接头抗拉强度影响最大,优化的工艺参数为ρ=0 mm、ω=1200 r/min、v=150 mm/min,此时接头的抗拉强度较高,其预测值为95.7 MPa。在该焊接工艺参数下,接头焊核区无缺陷且材料混合充分,组织呈现出良好的机械互锁特征,且焊核区因发生动态再结晶,得到均匀细小的组织,接头的实测抗拉强度为96.1 MPa,与响应面模型预测值基本吻合。

Friction stir based welding and processing technologies-processes,parameters,microstructures and applications:A review

Friction stir welding [FSW） has achieved remarkable success in the joining and processing of aluminium alloys and other softer structural alloys. Conventional FSW, however, has not been entirely successful in the joining, processing and manufacturing of different desired materials essential to meet the sophis- ticated green globe requirements. Through the efforts of improving the process and transferring the existing friction stir knowledge base to other advanced applications, several friction stir based daughter technologies have emerged over the timeline, A few among these technologies are well developed while others are under the process of emergence. Beginning with a broad classification of the scattered fric- tions stir based technologies into two categories, welding and processing, it appears now time to know, compile and review these to enable their rapid access for reference and academia. In this review article, the friction stir based technologies classified under the categol^J of welding are those applied for join- ing of materials while the remnant are labeled as friction stir processing （FSP） technologies. This review article presents an overview of four general aspects of both the developed and the developing friction stir based technologies, their associated process parameters, metallurgical features of their products and their feasibility and application to various materials. The lesser known and emerging technologies have been emphasized.

温度峰值影响6061铝/AZ31B镁异种材料FSW接头成形的规律

以6061-T6铝合金与AZ31B镁合金为研究对象,基于Abaqus软件进行了异种材料搅拌摩擦焊过程的温度场数值模拟,重点分析搅拌针偏置镁侧下的搅拌区温度峰值影响焊缝表面成形的规律.结果表明,当焊接温度峰值高于Al-Mg共晶温度时,搅拌针根部附近区域会出现较明显的黏着现象,其随着焊接速度的降低而加剧,这与焊接温度峰值的升高相关.随着焊接速度的增加,焊缝表面更易避免裂纹缺陷的产生.当搅拌头的转速为1 200 r/min且焊接速度为40 mm/min时,6061铝/AZ31B镁异种材料焊接接头的表面成形良好.

6061铝合金双轴肩搅拌摩擦焊接扭矩特征

为了揭示6061铝合金BTFSW过程中焊接扭矩的特征,对扭矩进行了检测,分析了扭矩信号的频谱特征、扭矩峰值的变化特点、扭矩振荡与焊缝表面成形的关系.研究表明扭矩具有周期性,主要频率接近于2倍主轴旋转频率值,频差的存在说明了焊接区域存在搅拌头与不同速率的金属流之间挤压摩擦的叠加行为;当接触点温度小于500℃时,扭矩峰值随着焊接速度的提高而变大,随着旋转速度的提高而变小;正常较小的扭矩振荡不影响表面成形,但当接触点温度大于550℃、上下轴肩间距过小或焊接速度过小或旋转速度过大等时,扭矩易发生异常振荡.对进一步揭示深入研究BTFSW焊接机理、搅拌头三维受力特征及其与焊接参数、焊接质量的关系有着重要的推动意义.

铝合金表面状态对搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和性能的影响

研究了铝合金表面状态对搅拌摩擦焊焊接接头组织和性能的影响。试验结果表明:试板表面油污的存在使得焊接接头强度下降为母材的60%左右,同时显著降低接头的塑性;试板表面的氧化膜和油污还会造成焊核区及焊缝前进侧的残余间混结合线缺陷。对焊接接头拉伸断口进行扫描电镜观察发现:拉伸试样的断口中存在油污和A l2O3的聚集物,这些聚集物会成为拉伸时的裂纹源。断口和力学性能综合分析表明:铝合金表面的油污和氧化膜都会降低搅拌摩擦焊接头的强度和塑性。

转速对7055铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头断裂特征的影响

采用搅拌摩擦焊对5 mm厚7055铝合金进行对接试验,通过拉伸试验研究不同转速接头断裂位置及其横截面的显微组织,断口形貌特征.结果表明,随着转速的提高,薄弱区发生了转移:当转速为700~800 r/min时,接头在热影响区发生45°剪切断裂;当转速提高至900~1 100 r/min时,接头在焊核区发生"S"形断裂;进一步提高转速至1 200~1 400 r/min时,接头沿着前进侧热力影响区或前进侧热力影响区与焊核区边界发生断裂.断口形貌分析表明,热影响区断口呈现大而深的韧窝,焊核区断口呈现小而浅的韧窝,均属韧性断裂;热力影响区边界断口呈韧-脆混合断裂特征.

5A06-O铝合金搅拌摩擦焊焊缝组织分析

针对常规熔化焊接铝合金容易导致焊接接头区域软化的问题,采用搅拌摩擦焊焊接厚度为5mm的5A06-O铝合金,研究焊接压力、搅拌头旋转速度和焊接速度对焊缝表面形貌的影响和下插深度对匙孔形貌的影响。采用X射线探伤表面形貌良好的焊缝,采用VHX-2000系列超景深显微镜观察焊缝各个区域显微组织。研究结果表明:搅拌摩擦焊焊缝由焊核区、热机影响区、热影响区和母材4部分组成;在搅拌头前进侧热机影响区与焊核区的分界线明显,在搅拌头后退侧热机影响区与焊核区的分界线模糊。