Experimental study on the mechanical and failure behaviors of deep rock subjected to true triaxial stress:A review

It has become an inevitable trend of human development to seek resources from the deep underground.However,rock encountered in deep underground engineering is usually in an anisotropic stress state(σ_(1)>σ>σ_(3))due to the influences of geological structures and engineering disturbances.It is therefore essential to study the mechanical,seepage,and dynamic disaster behaviors of deep rock under true triaxial stress to ensure the safe operation of deep rock engineering and the efficient exploitation of deep resources.In recent years,experimental techniques and research on true triaxial rock mechanics have achieved fruitful results that have promoted the rapid development of deep rock mechanics;thus,it is necessary to systematically review and summarize these developments.This work first introduced several typical true triaxial testing apparatus and then reviewed the corresponding research progress on rock deformation,strength,failure mode,brittleness,and energy as well as the 3D volumetric fracturing(dynamic disaster)properties of deep rocks under true triaxial stress.Then,several commonly used true triaxial rock strength criteria and their applicability,the permeability characteristics and mathematical models of deep reservoir rocks,and the disaster-causing processes and mechanisms of disturbed volumetric fracturing(rockburst,compound dynamic disasters)in deep rock engineering were described.This work may provide an essential reference for addressing the true triaxial rock mechanics issues involved in deep rock engineering,especially regarding the stability of surrounding rock at depth,disaster prevention and control,and oil and gas exploitation.

Investigation of the influence of intermediate principal stress on the dynamic responses of rocks subjected to true triaxial stress state

Precisely understanding the dynamic mechanical properties and failure modes of rocks subjected to true triaxial stress state(σ1>σ2>σ3,whereσ1,σ2,andσ3 are the major principal stress,intermediate principal stress,and minor principal stress,respectively)is essential to the safety of underground engineering.However,in the laboratory,it is difficult to maintain the constant true triaxial stress state of rocks during the dynamic testing process.Herein,a numerical servo triaxial Hopkinson bar(NSTHB)was developed to study the dynamic responses of rocks confronted with a true triaxial stress state,in which lateral stresses can maintain constant.The results indicate that the dynamic strength and elastic modulus of rocks increase with the rise of intermediate principal stressσ2,while the dynamic elastic modulus is independent of the dynamic strain rate.Simulated acoustic emission distributions indicate that the intermediate principal stressσ2 dramatically affects dynamic failure modes of triaxial confined rocks.Asσ2 increases,the failure pattern switches from a single diagonal shear zone into two parallel shear zones with a small slant.Moreover,a recent triaxial Hopkinson bar experimental system using three bar pairs is also numerically established,and the measuring discrepancies are identified between the two numerical bar systems.The proposed NSTHB system provides a controllable tool for studying the dynamic triaxial behavior of rocks.

3D morphology and formation mechanism of fractures developed by true triaxial stress

As main part of underground rock mass,the three-dimensional(3D)morphology of natural fractures plays an important role in rock mass stability.Based on previous studies on 3D morphology,this study probes into the law and mechanism regarding the influence of the confining pressure constraints on 3D morphological features of natural fractures.First,fracture surfaces were obtained by true triaxial compression test and 3D laser scanning.Then 3D morphological parameters of fractures were calculated by using Grasselli’s model.The results show that the failure mode of granites developed by true triaxial stress can be categorized into tension failure and shear failure.Based on the spatial position of fractures,they can be divided into tension fracture surface,S-1 shear fracture surface,and S-2 shear fracture surface.Micro-failure of the tension fracture surface is dominated by mainly intergranular fracture;the maximum height of asperities on the fracture surface and the 3D roughness of fracture surfaces are influenced by σ_(3) only and they are greater than those of shear fracture surfaces,a lower overall uniformity than tension fracture surface.S-1 shear fracture surface and S-2 shear fracture surface are dominated by intragranular and intergranular coupling fracture.The maximum height of asperities on the fracture surface and 3D roughness of fracture surface are affected by σ_(1),σ_(2),and σ_(3).With the increase of σ_(2) or σ_(3),the cutting off of asperities on the fracture surface becomes more common,the maximum height of asperities and 3D roughness of fracture surface further decrease,and the overall uniformity gets further improved.The experimental results are favorable for selecting technical parameters of enhanced geothermal development and the safety of underground mine engineering.

New artificial neural networks for true triaxial stress state analysis and demonstration of intermediate principal stress effects on intact rock strength

Simulations are conducted using five new artificial neural networks developed herein to demonstrate and investigate the behavior of rock material under polyaxial loading. The effects of the intermediate principal stress on the intact rock strength are investigated and compared with laboratory results from the literature. To normalize differences in laboratory testing conditions, the stress state is used as the objective parameter in the artificial neural network model predictions. The variations of major principal stress of rock material with intermediate principal stress, minor principal stress and stress state are investigated. The artificial neural network simulations show that for the rock types examined, none were independent of intermediate principal stress effects. In addition, the results of the artificial neural network models, in general agreement with observations made by others, show （a） a general trend of strength increasing and reaching a peak at some intermediate stress state factor, followed by a decline in strength for most rock types; （b） a post-peak strength behavior dependent on the minor principal stress, with respect to rock type; （c） sensitivity to the stress state, and to the interaction between the stress state and uniaxial compressive strength of the test data by the artificial neural networks models （two-way analysis of variance; 95% confidence interval）. Artificial neural network modeling, a self-learning approach to polyaxial stress simulation, can thus complement the commonly observed difficult task of conducting true triaxial laboratory tests, and/or other methods that attempt to improve two-dimensional （2D） failure criteria by incorporating intermediate principal stress effects.

Dilatancy equation of rockfill material under the true triaxial stress condition

Rockfill material is widely used for construction of high rockfill dam due to its facility,economical cost,high strength and effective aseismatic property.It is provoked profoundly to propose a suitable constitutive model for a better application of this material.The dilatancy equation of rockfill material plays a significant role in the constitutive model.For the sake of simplicity,a dilatancy equation is established by the linear least square method on the basis of the rearranged data of rockfill material in the true triaxial tests.Based on the fact that the rearranged data at different initial confining pressures are aligned in a narrow band,the dilatancy behavior of rockfill material is independent of the initial confining pressure.However,different from the initial confining pressure,both the intermediate principal stress ratio and the specimen density exhibit a remarkable influence on the dilatancy behaviors of rockfill material.Furthermore,the predictions of the proposed dilatancy equation are in a good agreement with the rearranged test data of rockfill material at different specimen densities and stress paths.

An anisotropic constitutive model of geomaterials based on true triaxial testing and its application

Series of testing on coarse grained soils were carried out with a true triaxial testing apparatus. The loads were applied from the major principal and minor principal directions, respectively, to simulate the construction and water impounding process of a rock fill dam. The stress and strain relationships induced by the different loading methods were investigated. A remarkable stress-induced anisotropy under complex stress state was observed. Contrary to popular assumptions in traditional numerical analysis and constitutive models, it was found that different elastic modulus and Poisson ratio exist in different principal directions in rock fill dams. From the testing results, an anisotropic constitutive model based on Duncan-Chang nonlinear model is presented to overcome the limitations of axi-symmetric assumptions in conventional triaxial experiments and constitutive models. Both models were then applied in FEM analysis of an under-construction earth core high rock soil filled dam with the focus on hydraulic fracturing. The study reveals the major biases that exist when numerical analysis and constitutive models do not give serious consideration to the intermediate principal stress and anisotropy effects in soil rock built structures.

考虑中间主应力效应的修正Hoek-Brown真三轴强度准则

为改善Hoek-Brown强度准则未考虑中间主应力对岩石强度的影响,通过岩石真三轴试验结果分析了岩石强度的演化规律,引入中间主应力系数,量化分析主应力系数对岩石真三轴强度的影响,考虑Hoek-Brown强度准则中的参数和岩石应力水平间的关联性,提出了基于拉格朗日插值方法的修正岩石真三轴Hoek-Brown强度准则,分析了其空间包络特征。最后,利用7种岩石的真三轴试验数据与其它3种真三轴强度准则进行最优拟合误差分析,探讨了修正强度准则的合理性。研究结果表明:岩石强度随着最小主应力的增加逐渐增大,随着中间主应力的增加则呈现先增大后减小的变化规律,表现出显著的区间效应;修正强度准则不仅能够继承Hoek-Brown强度准则在子午面上的非线性优点,且能够表征岩石强度在应力空间中的基本特性;线性和非线性插值形式的修正强度准则空间包络面分别为非等边的六棱锥面以及能够满足拉压子午面区间连续光滑要求的圆锥面;修正强度准则能够较好地预测岩石真三轴试验强度,较为合理地反映中间主应力对岩石强度的影响;相比于线性插值形式强度准则,二次插值形式强度准则能够提高岩石强度的预测精度1.2~2.0倍;相较于其他真三轴强度准则,修正强度准则对不同硬脆性岩石的真三轴试验结果均具有良好的强度预测精度,体现了修正强度准则的适用性和可靠性。

中间主应力系数对页岩气渗流特性及气体滑脱效应的影响

页岩气的渗流特性极大地影响着采收率,但对页岩气渗流特性的研究大多是在不同围压条件下开展的,其结果尚不能揭示中间主应力对渗透率的影响。因此,选用涪陵页岩气区块志留系龙马溪组页岩露头立方体岩石试件,采用自主研发的“多功能真三轴流固耦合试验系统”开展了页岩真三轴流固耦合试验,利用Klinkenberg方程拟合试验数据分析不同中间主应力系数对页岩气渗流特性和气体滑脱效应的影响。试验结果表明:①当偏应力较小时,中间主应力对页岩渗透率演化的影响较小,而当偏应力增加时,其影响越大且越不可忽略;②滑脱系数—固有渗透率的关系式与试验数据的拟合结果显示二者具有良好的相关性,可用于对同区块页岩滑脱系数的预测;③当偏应力小于或等于35 MPa时,滑脱效应贡献率保持在65%以上,表明此时滑脱效应主导着页岩中气体的渗流。

页岩气藏暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律模拟

暂堵转向压裂技术是提高非常规油气产能的重要方法之一,在非常规油气藏储层改造中已经得到了广泛应用。为进一步认识威远地区页岩气藏暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展特征,文中通过真三轴大物模实验研究了暂堵转向压裂压力响应与岩样破裂形态,验证了暂堵产生复杂缝网结构的可行性,明确了在不同应力差条件下的暂堵后裂缝起裂规律;同时采用ABAQUS软件黏结单元模拟裂缝的起裂与扩展,研究了不同水平应力差、不同偏转角下暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律。研究结果表明:水平应力差对初次裂缝与暂堵转向裂缝的开启与扩展均具有显著的影响,水平应力差越小时,一次和二次压裂时岩样的破裂压力就越大,岩样越不容易被压碎。裂缝扩展阻力的不断增加,提升了缝内净压力与裂缝宽度;相交缝二次扩展后开启的新裂缝与一次压裂夹角越小,新裂缝扩展效果越好。该研究对威远地区现场压裂和缝网形态预测具有一定的理论指导和借鉴意义。

不同卸载方向下高应力岩石真三轴卸荷力学特性研究

深部岩体开挖过程中,围岩应力场在开挖面附近形成交替分布的应力升高区(加载区)和应力降低区(卸载区),极易引发高应力岩体失稳破坏。尽管目前已有诸多关于岩石加卸载破坏方面的研究,但在复杂真三轴应力路径下岩石加卸载破坏机理的认识仍不充分。针对这一问题,文章以山东玲珑金矿花岗岩立方块试样为研究对象,首先进行了不同侧向应力下真三轴加载破坏试验,并进一步开展了不同卸荷方向下真三轴卸载破坏试验,深入研究了花岗岩试样在复杂真三轴加卸载路径下的强度及破坏特征。试验结果表明:随着中间主应力的增大,真三轴加载条件花岗岩的破坏模式由张拉-剪切复合型破坏转变到张拉破坏,真三轴加载破坏强度先增大后缓慢减小;在相同中间主应力和最小主应力条件下,花岗岩的真三轴卸载破坏强度均小于其加载破坏强度,Mogi强度公式可以很好地拟合卸载最小主应力条件下的真三轴卸载强度。该成果可为深部岩体工程稳定性控制和设计提供重要的理论依据和指导。

致密储层缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律数值模拟

基于损伤力学理论,建立了储层渗流-应力-损伤耦合裂缝扩展数值模型,将模型结果与室内真三轴水力压裂物理模拟实验结果进行了对比,验证了模型的准确性,并基于该模型探讨了压裂液黏度、排量、水平地应力差以及储层岩石非均质性对缝内暂堵转向压裂效果的影响。研究结果表明:(1)储层渗流-应力-损伤耦合裂缝扩展数值模型是联合流体流动控制方程与岩石变形方程形成整体控制方程,通过在初始裂缝扩展路径上某一区域人为设置高强度的岩石物理力学参数和较小的储层渗透率值,实现缝内暂堵的模拟。(2)缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展模型数值模拟的分支缝数量、主裂缝面积、主裂缝延伸方向等与室内真三轴水力压裂物理模拟实验的结果基本一致,该模型可实现缝内暂堵后基质的破裂与新裂缝扩展模拟,对缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展情况也具有较好的模拟效果。(3)压裂液的黏度和排量越大,缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝长度、改造面积及偏转角度均明显增大,且逐渐由单一裂缝向复杂裂缝转变。当水平地应力差小于7.5 MPa时,缝内暂堵转向压裂的效果较好;当水平地应力差为10~15 MPa时,压裂效果变差;当水平地应力差大于15 MPa时,裂缝几乎不偏转;储层非均质性会影响裂缝局部的扩展路径,但对裂缝总体扩展趋势影响甚微。

A new apparatus for investigating stress,deformation and seepage coupling properties of rock fractures

A true triaxial apparatus which is composed of three units was presented.The apparatus allows for investigations on deformation and seepage behaviors of a single rock fracture subjected to lateral stress and normal stress.The first unit has three jacks which can apply loads independently in three orthogonal directions.The second unit is used to supply water inflow,control seepage pressure and measure flow velocity in real time.The third unit is for measuring the normal deformation of rock fractures.Some tests for investigating the normal deformation and seepage behaviors of rock fractures subjected to normal and lateral loads on hard granite specimens with an artificial persistent fracture,were introduced.The results show that both the normal deformation and the hydraulic conductivity are influenced not only by the normal stress but also by the lateral stress.It is also shown that the aperture and the hydraulic conductivity decrease with the increasing normal stress but increase with the increasing lateral stress and both the aperture and the hydraulic conductivity obey exponential relationships with the normal stress and the lateral stress.

考虑水化学损伤的岩石真三轴蠕变本构模型

为了准确描述岩石在酸性环境下真三轴蠕变行为的各阶段特征,基于水岩作用的化学动力学理论,定义了考虑PH值与时间的化学损伤因子,将弹性体,非线性Kelvin体,线性Kelvin体和黏弹塑性体进行串联,并考虑岩石在真三轴应力作用下的实际情况,建立岩石酸腐与真三轴应力耦合作用下的损伤蠕变本构模型,通过已有的蠕变试验数据对该模型进行参数辨识与验证,并通过数据拟合得到岩石在真三轴应力下的屈服面方程,探讨中间主应力对蠕变模型的影响.结果表明,推导的本构模型能很好地描述岩石在酸腐作用下真三轴蠕变行为的各阶段特性,验证了其合理性与准确性.

基于分形理论的煤岩裂隙网络渗透率模型

煤储层裂隙是煤层气渗流的主要通道,决定了煤储层的渗透性及煤层气产能,研究裂隙结构特征与煤储层渗透性的关系对准确预测煤层气产能具有重要理论及实践意义。基于经典立方定律渗透率模型,同时考虑分形理论、裂隙网络结构特征及有效应力,构建包含复杂弯曲裂隙特征的分形渗透率模型,将分形渗透率模型与S&D(Shi-Durucan)模型相结合,建立真三轴应力作用下的裂隙煤渗透率模型。开展真三轴应力条件下的气体渗流实验,将构建的渗透率模型与试验结果及S&D模型拟合数据对比,该渗透率模型与实验结果具有良好的一致性,能够体现出三向应力加载条件下应力对渗透率变化的影响趋势,与S&D模型相比更能反映煤岩渗透率的各向异性特征。基于该渗透率模型,定量分析了煤岩裂隙结构参数对其渗透率的影响。结果表明,煤岩渗透率与孔隙率φ(0.05~0.41)、分形维数D_(f)(2.37~2.81)、最大裂隙长度l_(max)(3.5~8.0 cm)、比例系数β(0.010~0.065)呈正幂律关系;与迂曲度分形维数D_(Tf)(2.005~2.275),裂隙倾角θ(10°~80°)呈负幂律关系。研究成果对准确预测煤岩储层渗透率,揭示煤储层中煤层气的流动机理具有重要作用。

不同三维应力条件下硬岩巷道围岩的破坏特征及能量分布

为了研究开挖巷道围岩在不同三维应力条件下的破坏特征,采用TRW3000岩石真三轴电液伺服试验系统对含圆孔花岗岩试件进行三轴加载试验,并利用微型高清摄像系统实时记录圆孔附近的失效过程。结果表明,低应力条件下,圆孔内壁主要发生层裂破坏;高应力条件下,圆孔周边主要发生岩爆破坏。增加水平方向的应力可以抑制围岩发生岩爆。进一步数值模拟不同应力条件下圆孔周边的应变能密度(SED)演化过程。模拟结果表明,随着水平应力的增加,圆孔周边的SED分布逐渐减小;圆孔周边SED分布与实验记录的损伤分布基本一致,主要表现为蝶形、耳形和环形分布。

超深钻岩芯地质环境真三轴试验装置研制及应用

为研究超深部岩芯的变形与破裂行为,研制了超深钻岩芯地质环境真三轴试验装置。该装置主要用于测试超深钻岩芯加工的试样(25 mm×25 mm×50 mm)在真三轴应力下的全应力-应变行为、循环加卸载破裂行为和时效变形行为,解决了试样变形测量不准确、加载系统低刚度、高油压与作动器压力互相干涉等技术难题。利用该装置完成了山东黄金集团三山岛金矿西岭副井工勘孔岩芯真三轴应力下力学行为的测试,发现:循环加卸载弱化了试样的脆性破裂特征,诱导3个方向的变形表现出各向异性;分级蠕变试验中,试样3个方向的变形均表现出初始蠕变、稳态蠕变、加速蠕变,且3个方向的蠕变速率均随偏应力的增加近似线性增加。

An open-end high-power microwave-induced fracturing system for hard rock

Microwave pre-treatment is considered as a promising technique for alleviating cutter wear. This paper introduces a high-power microwave-induced fracturing system for hard rock. The test system consists of a high-power microwave subsystem (100 kW), a true triaxial testing machine, a dynamic monitoring subsystem, and an electromagnetic shielding subsystem. It can realize rapid microwave-induced fracturing, intelligent tuning of impedance, dynamic feedback under strong microwave fields, and active control of microwave parameters by addressing the following issues: the instability and insecurity of the system, the discharge breakdown between coaxial lines during high-power microwave output, and a lack of feedback of rock-microwave response. In this study, microwave-induced surface and borehole fracturing tests under true triaxial stress were carried out. Experimental comparisons imply that high-power microwave irradiation can reduce the fracturing time of hard rock and that the fracture range (160 mm) of a 915-MHz microwave source is about three times that of 2.45 GHz. After microwave-induced borehole fracturing, many tensile cracks occur on the rock surface and in the borehole: the maximum reduction of the P-wave velocity is 12.8%. The test results show that a high-power microwave source of 915 MHz is more conducive to assisting mechanical rock breaking and destressing. The system can promote the development of microwave-assisted rock breaking equipment.

K0固结软黏土双向耦合循环加载真三轴试验研究

文章针对天津滨海K0固结饱和软黏土,开展轴向及侧向耦合循环加载真三轴试验。重点探讨了循环中主应力系数及循环应力水平对软黏土动应力应变响应的影响。试验结果表明:同一循环应力水平,循环中主应力系数越大,累积永久大主应变越小,中主应力的增大对大主应变的发展有抑制作用;循环中主应力系数在0.4~0.6,存在某一临界值,其为中主应变发生正负反向的临界点。同一中主应力系数,循环应力水平越高,土样最终累积永久主应变越大;循环应力水平在0.4~0.46,存在某一临界值,其为土样循环振稳及失稳的临界点。在大主应力方向,循环中主应力系数越小,土体刚度弱化越显著;在中主应力方向,刚度弱化程度随中主应力系数的变化并非单调。循环应力水平越大,土体刚度弱化越显著。利用广义剪应变表征三维复杂应力状态下土单元的应变水平,建议了能够预测任意给定循环中主应力系数、循环应力水平及循环次数下累积永久广义剪应变的指数函数表达式。研究成果以期为波浪、交通等复杂动荷载作用下软黏土地基的稳定性分析及变形计算提供试验依据。

真三轴应力条件下破断煤体力学响应及渗流特性试验研究

为探究煤炭深部开采过程中破断区域煤体的力学及渗流特性,利用多功能真三轴流固耦合试验系统,结合计算机断层扫描(CT)技术分析破断煤体破坏后的内部裂隙分布情况,获得不同中间主应力下破断煤体的强度特征、渗透率演化及破坏模式。研究结果表明:真三轴应力条件下破断煤体呈现出脆-延性破坏特征,随着中间主应力的增大,峰值强度呈现先增大后减小的变化趋势;破断煤体的渗透率在临近破坏前并未出现大幅增长,在进入峰后阶段总体呈下降趋势,且在峰前阶段变化更为明显;破断煤体破坏后的裂隙形式以剪切裂隙为主,宏观剪切破裂面呈现非对称分布特征。应根据现场煤层破断区域构造应力和裂隙结构的变化,调整煤层破断区域瓦斯抽采或破碎煤岩巷道注浆加固方案,保障深部煤炭安全开采。

真三轴采动卸荷条件下砂岩扩容行为和非共轴性研究

在实际地下工程开挖中,岩石处于采动应力状态,其采动应力路径用应力Lode角表示。基于多功能真三轴流固耦合试验系统,开展相同静水压力、不同应力Lode角的真三轴力学试验,研究不同应力Lode角对砂岩的扩容特性和非共轴性的影响。试验结果表明:应力Lode角的增加在一定程度上反映出卸荷作用对砂岩真三轴试验变形的影响。对比应力Lode角在-30°~0°和0~30°的主应力变化量可以发现:最大主应力变化量比较均匀,中间主应力变化量下降,最小主应力变化量上升。随着应力Lode角的增加,最大主应变压缩程度下降,中间主应变由膨胀转变为压缩,最小主应变膨胀程度增加,且最小主应力方向的膨胀量相对于最大主应力方向的压缩量增加。应力Lode角从-30°变化到30°,随着最大主应变的增加,体积应变呈现先减小后增加的趋势。引入应变偏应力柔量,随着应力Lode角的增加,广义剪切应力对最大主应力方向的压缩变形作用减弱,对最小主应力方向的膨胀变形作用先增强后趋于平稳;体积应变偏应力柔量整体呈现下降趋势。非共轴性表现为应力路径和应变路径不重合,不同应力Lode角下的应变路径均向低Lode角方向演化。引入偏转量,应力Lode角从-30°变化到30°,偏转量呈现先上升后下降的趋势。