Ultrafine Grain Tungsten Heavy Alloys with Excellent Performance Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering

Ultrafine grain tungsten heavy alloys (WHAs) were successfully produced from the nano-crystalline powders using spark plasma sintering.The present study mainly discussed the effects of sintering temperature on the density,microstructure and mechanical properties of the alloys.The relative density of 98.12% was obtained at 1 050 ℃,and the tungsten grain size is about 871 nm.At 1 000 ℃-1 200 ℃,the mechanical properties of the alloys tend to first rise and then goes down.After SPS,the alloy exhibits improved hardness (84.3 HRA at 1 050 ℃) and bending strength (987.16 MPa at 1 100 ℃),due to the ultrafine-grained microstructure.The fracture mode after bending tests is mainly characterized as intergranular or intragranular fracture of W grains,interfacial debonding of W grains-binding phase and ductile tearing of binding phase.The EDS analysis reveals a certain proportion of solid solution between W and Ni-Fe binding phase.The good mechanical properties of the alloys can be attributed to grain refinement and solid solution strengthening.

COMPUTER NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TUNGSTEN HEAVY ALLOYS

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Fabrication and Characterization of Tungsten Heavy Alloys Using Chemical Reduction and Mechanical Alloying Methods

A novel reduction technique has been developed to synthesize nano-sized tungsten heavy alloys powders and compared with the same powders processed by mechanical alloying technique. In the first method, nano-sized tungsten heavy alloys powders have been obtained by reduction of precursors obtained by spray drying of several appropriate aqueous solutions, which were made from salts containing tungsten, cobalt, and nickel. By adjusting the stoichiometry of the component of the solutions, it is possible to obtain the desired chemical composition of the tungsten heavy alloys powders. In the second method, highly pure elemental powders of tungsten heavy alloys have been mechanically alloyed in a tumbler ball mill for different milling time. The investigated tungsten heavy alloy powders with the composition (95%W-3.5%Ni-1.5%Fe), (93%W-4.5%Ni-1.0%Fe-1.5%Co), and (90%W-6%Ni-4%Cu) have been prepared using both methods. The prepared powders have been compacted at 70 bar (200 MPa) and sintered in vacuum furnace at 1400℃. Vacuum sintering was carried out to achieve full densification of the produced tungsten heavy alloys. The investigated materials were going to be evaluated the physical and mechanical properties of the sintered parts such as density;electrical conductivity, hardness, and transverse rupture strength. The results reveal that, the grain size of alloys fabricated by chemical reduction technique (53.1 - 63.8 nm) is smaller than that fabricated by mechanical alloying technique (56.4 - 71.4 nm).

Microstructure and properties of liquid-phase sintered tungsten heavy alloys by using ultra-fine tungsten powders

The microstructure and properties of liquid-phase sintered 93W-4.9Ni-2.1Fe tungsten heavy alloys using ultra-fine tungsten powders (medium particle size of 700 nm) and original tungsten powders (medium particle size of 3 μm) were investigated respectively. Commercial tungsten powders (original tungsten powders) were mechanically milled in a high-energy attritor mill for 35 h. Ultra-fine tungsten powders and commercial Ni, Fe powders were consolidated into green compacts by using CIP method and liquid-phase sintering at 1 465 ℃ for 30 min in the dissociated ammonia atmosphere. Liquid-phase sintered tungsten heavy alloys using ultra-fine tungsten powders exhibit full densification (above 99% in relative density) and higher strength and elongation compared with conventional liquid-phase sintered alloys using original tungsten powders due to lower sintering temperature at 1 465 ℃ and short sintering time. The mechanical properties of sintered tungsten heavy alloy are found to be mainly dependent on the particles size of raw tungsten powders and liquid-phase sintering temperature.

Influences of sub-micrometer Ta and Co dopants on microstructure and properties of tungsten heavy alloys

Tungsten heavy alloys are aggregates of particles of tungsten bonded with Ni/Fe or Ni/Cu via liquid-phase sintering. The sub-micrometer Ta Co powder was added to this aggregate to strengthen the bonding phase. It is found that the main fr acture pattern of the alloys is cleavage of tungsten grains and ductile rupture of bond phase,leading to improved tensile strength and elongation. Dopant Ta ca n act as grain size inhibitor in tungsten heavy alloys.

LOW TEMPERATURE THERMAL DEBINDING BEHAVIOR OF WAX-BASED MULTI-COMPONENT BINDER FOR TUNGSTEN HEAVY ALLOY

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Prediction and optimization of machining forces using oxley’s predictive theory and RSM approach during machining of WHAs

Tungsten heavy alloys have come up as one of the best alternatives for high density fragmenting devices and armor piercing ammunition.Machining is mandatory for obtaining the final shapes of such kind of ammunitions.However,due to high density and elastic stiffness of WHAs,cutting forces will be higher than for most of the metals and alloys;thus,making the machining operation challenging.The machining variable,namely,cutting force components are significantly influenced by the cutting parameters.This paper makes use of Oxley’s predictive analytical model in conjunction with Johnson-Cook constitutive equation to predict forces under different speed and feed combinations during machining of 95 W tungsten heavy alloy.The cutting forces,so predicted by Ml,are considered as input data for the optimization of cutting parameters(cutting speed and feed)using Response Surface Method(RSM).

Application of the Backpropagation Neural Network Method in Designing Tungsten Heavy Alloy

The model describing the dependence of the mechanical properties on the chemical composition and as deformation techniques of tungsten heavy alloy is established by the method of improved the backpropagation neural network. The mechanical properties＇ parameters of tungsten alloy and deformation techniques for tungsten alloy are used as the inputs. The chemical composition and deformation amount of tungsten alloy are used as the outputs. Then they are used for training the neural network. At the same time, the optimal number of the hidden neurons is obtained through the experiential equations, and the varied step learning method is adopted to ensure the stability of the training process. According to the requirements for mechanical properties, the chemical composition and the deformation condition for tungsten heavy alloy can be designed by this artificial neural network system.

Adiabatic shear banding of hot-extruded tungsten heavy alloy under cryogenic temperature

The effect of cryogenic temperature on adiabatic shear banding (ASBing) of tungsten heavy alloy (WHA) processed by hot-hydrostatic ex-trusion was investigated.Results show that,when the initial temperature is decreased,the dynamic flow stress,the critical failure time,and the dynamic failure energy of specimens show an increasing tendency,while the susceptibility to ASB of WHA shows a decreasing tendency,which is characterized by decreased shear strain and increased width of shear bands.Microstructure analysis shows that the number of mi-crocracks within ASB exhibits an increasing tendency with decreased initial temperature,and the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) process within ASB is evidently suppressed at the lower temperature.As a result of the lower temperature,the motion and rearrangement of disloca-tion are effectively suppressed,which is mainly responsible for the incomplete DRX process within ASB and decreases susceptibility to ASB.

Grain refinement of W-Ni-Fe heavy alloys by tantalum element adding

90W-7Ni-3Fe and (90-x)W-xTa-7Ni-3Fe (x=1,3,5,7,10) specimens were attained by liquid phase sintering. A model describing the process of liquid forming and spreading was proposed to point out the differences between alloys doped with tantalum and traditional tungsten heavy alloys. Tantalum priority of entering matrix and a relative high solubility in liquid matrix depress tungsten solubility in liquid matrix, which decreases kinetic rate constant K and consequently results in the reduction of W grain size. The grain refinement is influenced by Ta content and becomes more obvious when Ta content is over 5%. The sample with less than 3%Ta has dominant W and matrix phases. While besides W and matrix phases, intermetallic phases emerge in 85W-5Tai-7Ni-3Fe sample. Ta is superfluous and forms a new tantalum phase when more than 7% Ta is added into alloys.

Effect of microstructural parameters on the properties of W-Ni-Fe alloys

The aim of this research was to examine the effect of microstructural parameters on the tensile properties of different compositions of tungsten heavy alloys. The microstructural parameters （grain size, connectivity, contiguity, and solid volume fraction） were measured and were found to have a significant effect on the tensile properties of tungsten-based heavy alloys. The microstructural parameters of W-Ni-Fe alloys are sufficiently different to present a range of mechanical properties. It is concluded that the mechanical properties of tungsten heavy alloys largely depend on the microstructural parameters and their ductility is particularly harmed when grains are contiguous.

Aging Behaviors of W-Ni-Fe Ternary Alloys with High Ni-to-Fe Ratios

The hardness variation of two kinds of alloys with 36 wt pct W content and 7/3, 9/1 Ni-to-Fe ratios during strain aging at 800℃ was studied. The microstructures of the aged alloys were analyzed by X-ray diffraction and TEM. The results show that the strain aging hardness of W-Ni-Fe ternary alloy with 7/3 Ni-to-Fe ratio decreases monotonically with the increase of aging time. Under the same conditions, the hardness of 9/1 Ni-to-Fe ratio alloy decreases in the initial aging stage, but then increases as aging process goes on. X ray diffraction and TEM analysis show that there is not any precipitation depositing from the alloy with 7/3 Ni-to-Fe ratio during aging. The monotonic decrease in hardness of this alloy during aging process results from the recovery, recrystallization and solid solubility declining. In the alloy of 9/1 Ni-to-Fe ratio, the fine β phase precipitates dispersively during aging which hardens the alloy. The two different kinds of mechanisms (the softening one and the hardening one) decide the hardness variation of the alloy with 9/1 Ni-to-Fe ratio mentioned above.

91W-Ni-Fe-Co合金的常温、低温力学性能及微观组织

通过粉末冶金方法制备91W-5.5Ni-3.3Fe-0.2Co和91W-5.5Ni-2.5Fe-1Co合金。采用硬度测试、室温低温拉伸试验、扫描电镜(SEM)和能谱(EDS)等方法,研究合金的微观组织演变和室温、低温力学行为。研究结果表明:在室温条件下,Co质量分数为1%的合金的力学性能更优异,抗拉强度和伸长率分别为1 400 MPa和11.7%,拉伸断裂行为以钨解理断裂和黏结相撕裂为主。微观组织上,相比于低Co合金,高Co合金的晶粒更加细小,钨-钨连续度降低,黏结相体积分数提高,黏结相中钨溶解度增大,合金性能得到优化;随着温度降低,2种合金的强度提高,伸长率下降;在-60℃时,高Co合金的伸长率相比于低Co合金的伸长率提高了20%,同时,合金的断裂模式仍以韧性相撕裂为主,而低Co合金在低于-20℃时,断裂由钨解理断裂主导。在一定范围内,Co质量分数增加能抑制杂质元素在晶界处偏聚,提高钨晶粒塑性变形程度,降低低温脆性。

旋转锻造加工高比重W-Ni-Fe合金的退火工艺研究

使用粉末冶金工艺制备Ni/Fe为7∶3的W-Ni-Fe高比重钨合金,在使用旋转锻造方法进行形变强化后进行热处理。结果表明,锻造态W-Ni-Fe合金经过一定温度的锻后退火,强度有所提高,而塑性下降。样品的强度在一定的退火温度和保温时间范围内能得到提升,更高温度和更高时间的保温会使样品强度下降。不同钨含量的W-Ni-Fe合金,强度提升最大的退火温度和时间条件不同。SEM图像显示,退火前样品钨颗粒因旋转锻造变形呈现长条状织构,退火后钨颗粒的形状无明显变化。这些现象说明,锻造变形的合金样品经过锻后退火发生应变时效现象,使强度得到提升。研究明确了不同钨含量的W-Ni-Fe合金最佳的锻后退火工艺参数。

Ultrasonic-assisted soldering W90 Tungsten heavy alloy to AZ31B Mg alloy using Sn-x Al alloy

A double-layered W/Mg structure is expected to be a new generation of nuclear radiation shielding material.The tungsten heavy alloy(W90)and AZ31B Mg alloy were firstly bonded by ultrasonic-assisted soldering using pure Sn and Sn-Al filler metal in an atmospheric environment.The influence of ultrasonication time on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joint was investigated.The typical microstructure of the W90/Sn/Mg joint was W90/Mg_(2)Sn+Sn/Mg_(2)Sn layer/Mg.As the ultrasonication time increased from 2 s to 10 s,the joint width reduced and the thickness of the Mg_(2)Sn layer increased.The shear strength of the joint firstly increased,then flattened,and finally decreased.The joint strength reached the maximum value of 10.5 MPa.The fracture position of the joint changed from the W90/filler metal interface to the Mg_(2)Sn layer.The addition of Al in Sn resulted in the formation of the Al4 W phase at the W/Sn-1Al interface.The W/filler metal interface changed from the semi-coherent interface to the coherent interface and the joint strength increased.As the ultrasonication time was 6 s,the shear strength W90/Sn-1Al/Mg joint reached the maximum value of 24.6 MPa and the joint fractured at two positions:W90/filler metal interface and filler metal.With the further increase of ultrasonication time,the joint strength decreased and the joint fractured in the Mg_(2)Sn layer.

Ultrashort-time liquid phase sintering of high-performance fine-grain tungsten heavy alloys by laser additive manufacturing

Liquid phase sintering(LPS)is a proven technique for preparing large-size tungsten heavy alloys(WHAs).However,for densification,this processing requires that the matrix of WHAs keeps melting for a long time,which simultaneously causes W grain coarsening that degenerates the performance.This work develops a novel ultrashort-time LPS method to form bulk high-performance fine-grain WHAs based on the principle of laser additive manufacturing(LAM).During LAM,the high-entropy alloy matrix(Al_(0.5)Cr_(0.9)FeNi_(2.5)V_(0.2))and W powders were fed simultaneously but only the matrix was melted by laser and most W particles remained solid,and the melted matrix rapidly solidified with laser moving away,producing an ultrashort-time LPS processing in the melt pool,i.e.,laser ultrashort-time liquid phase sintering(LULPS).The extreme short dwell time in liquid(-1/10,000 of conventional LPS)can effectively suppress W grain growth,obtaining a small size of 1/3 of the size in LPS WHAs.Meanwhile,strong convection in the melt pool of LULPS enables a nearly full densification in such a short sintering time.Compared with LPS WHAs,the LULPS fine-grain WHAs present a 42%higher yield strength,as well as an enhanced susceptibility to adiabatic shear banding(ASB)that is important for strong armor-piercing capability,indicating that LULPS can be a promising pathway for forming high-performance WHAs that surpass those prepared by conventional LPS.

Co含量及烧结温度对97W-Ni-Fe合金组织和性能的影响

钨基高比重合金因具有高密度、高强度、良好的塑性与韧性、优异的耐腐蚀性等综合性能,被广泛应用于航空航天、兵器、机械等各领域。本研究采用金属粉末注射成形技术制备97W-Ni-Fe合金,研究了不同Co含量和烧结温度对97W-Ni-Fe合金微观组织、密度、抗拉强度、延伸率和硬度的影响。结果表明,添加适量Co能够改善97W-Ni-Fe合金中钨颗粒与粘结相的润湿性,起到活化烧结的作用,降低烧结温度,提高合金相对密度;Co对合金的相组成影响不大,添加Co和未添加Co的两种合金相组成基本一致,均由W相和(Fe,Ni,Co)固溶体组成,没有金属间化合物出现。当Co含量为0.2%(质量分数)时,在氢气气氛下,烧结温度为1495℃、保温1 h,制备的97W-Ni-Fe合金具有最优异的性能,其相对密度为99.1%、抗拉强度为938 MPa、延伸率为11.3%和洛氏硬度为29.5。

MA制备W-Ni-Fe纳米复合粉末的工艺优化

研究了90W 7Ni 3Fe混合粉末在行星式高能球磨机中的机械合金化(MA)工艺。在一定条件下球磨后,采用XRD分析了粉末相变化、晶块尺寸和晶格畸变,采用SEM对粉末形貌进行了分析。研究了球磨时间、球磨机转速、球料比、球装填系数、不同的表面活性剂等因素对粉末性能的影响。确定了机械合金化制备W Ni Fe纳米复合粉末的最优化工艺:球磨转速为200r/min,球装填系数为6%～12%,球料比为10∶1,液体介质比为V液体∶V(球+料)=1.4～2.0。不同种类的过程控制剂对MA粉末分散和粉末的成形性有很大的影响,采用8#过程控制剂能在有效分散MA粉末的同时具有好的成形性。

注射成形高比重合金的性能与显微组织

含钨量较高的ＷＮｉＦｅ高比重合金具有高的密度、强度等优异性能，适合用作动能穿甲弹以及防辐射屏蔽材料；而粉末注射成形技术（ＰＩＭ）在生产小而形状复杂与性能良好的零件方面具有很大的潜在优势。研究了９５Ｗ３．５Ｎｉ１．５Ｆｅ高比重合金的注射成形工艺，讨论了其烧结工艺与性能的关系，并与采用传统粉末冶金（ＰＩＭ）法制造的合金性能与显微组织进行了比较。结果表明，采用注射成形所生产的合金，性能更高，硬度分布和显微组织结构更均匀。

二步烧结法控制高比重合金的变形及其对组织与性能的影响

采用二步烧结法（ 固相烧结＋ 液相烧结） 控制高比重合金的变形。首先在１４００℃下固相烧结， 然后在粘结相的液相线温度以上进行液相烧结以达到全致密。由于在固相烧结阶段形成了坚固的十四面体形的三维连通网络骨架， 阻碍了液相烧结中钨颗粒“偏析”所引起的变形， 合金的性能和显微组织的均匀性大大提高。