Preliminary discussion on the ignition mechanism of exploding foil initiators igniting boron potassium nitrate

Exploding foil initiator(EFI)is a kind of advanced device for initiating explosives,but its function is unstable when it comes to directly igniting pyrotechnics.To solve the problem,this research aims to reveal the ignition mechanism of EFIs directly igniting pyrotechnics.An oscilloscope,a photon Doppler velocimetry,and a plasma spectrum measurement system were employed to obtain information of electric characteristics,impact pressure,and plasma temperature.The results of the electric characteristics and the impact pressure were inconsistent with ignition results.The only thing that the ignition success tests had in common was that their plasma all had a relatively long period of high-temperature duration(HTD).It eventually concludes that the ignition mechanism in this research is the microconvection heat transfer rather than the shock initiation,which differs from that of exploding foil initiators detonating explosives.Furthermore,the methods for evaluating the ignition success of semiconductor bridge initiators are not entirely applicable to the tests mentioned in this paper.The HTD is the critical parameter for judging the ignition success,and it is influenced by two factors:the late time discharge and the energy of the electric explosion.The longer time of the late time discharge and the more energy of the electric explosion,the easier it is to expand the HTD,which improves the probability of the ignition success.

Ignition processes and characteristics of charring conductive polymers with a cavity geometry in precombustion chamber for applications in micro/nano satellite hybrid rocket motors

The arc ignition system based on charring polymers has advantages of simple structure,low ignition power consumption and multiple ignitions,which bringing it broadly application prospect in hybrid propulsion system of micro/nano satellite.However,charring polymers alone need a relatively high input voltage to achieve pyrolysis and ignition,which increases the burden and cost of the power system of micro/nano satellite in practical application.Adding conductive substance into charring polymers can effectively decrease the conducting voltage which can realize low voltage and low power consumption repeated ignition of arc ignition system.In this paper,a charring conductive polymer ignition grain with a cavity geometry in precombustion chamber,which is composed of PLA and multiwall carbon nanotubes(MWCNT)was proposed.The detailed ignition processes were analyzed and two different ignition mechanisms in the cavity of charring conductive polymers were revealed.The ignition characteristics of charring conductive polymers were also investigated at different input voltages,ignition grain structures,ignition locations and injection schemes in a visual ignition combustor.The results demonstrated that the ignition delay and external energy required for ignition were inversely correlated with the voltages applied to ignition grain.Moreover,the incremental depth of cavity shortened the ignition delay and external energy required for ignition while accelerated the propagation of flame.As the depth of cavity increased from 2 to 6 mm(at 50 V),the time of flame propagating out of ignition grain changed from 235.6 to 108 ms,and values of mean ignition delay time and mean external energy required for ignition decreased from 462.8 to 320 ms and 16.2 to 10.75 J,respectively.The rear side of the cavity was the ideal ignition position which had a shorter ignition delay and a faster flame propagation speed in comparison to other ignition positions.Compared to direct injection scheme,swirling injection provided a more favorable flow field environment in the cavity,which was beneficial to ignition and initial flame propagation,but the ignition position needed to be away from the outlet of swirling injector.At last,the repeated ignition characteristic of charring conductive polymers was also investigated.The ignition delay time and external energy required for ignition decreased with repeated ignition times but the variation was decreasing gradually.

Evaluating Ignition and Combustion Performance with Al-Metal- Organic Frameworks and Nano-Aluminum in HTPB Fuel

Incorporating aluminum metal-organic frameworks(Al-MOFs)as energetic additives for solid fuels presents a promising avenue for enhancing combustion performance.This study explores the potential benefits of Al-MOF(MIL-53(Al))energetic additive on the combustion performance of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene(HTPB)fuel.The HTPB-MOF fuel samples were manufactured using the vacuum-casting technique,followed by a comprehensive evaluation of their ignition and combustion properties using an opposed flow burner(OFB)setup utilizing gaseous oxygen as an oxidizer.To gauge the effectiveness of Al-MOFs as fuel additives,their impact is compared with that of nano-aluminum(nAl),another traditional additive in HTPB fuel.The results indicate that the addition of 15%(mass fraction)nAl into HTPB resulted in the shortest ignition delay time(136 ms),demonstrating improved ignition performance compared to pure HTPB(273 ms).The incorporation of Al-MOF in HTPB also reduced ignition delay times to 227 ms and 189 ms,respectively.Moreover,under high oxidizer mass flux conditions(79—81 kg/(m^(2)s)),HTPB fuel with 15%nAl exhibited a substantial 83.2%increase in regression rate compared to the baseline HTPB fuel,highlighting the positive influence of nAl on combustion behavior.In contrast,HTPB-MOF with a 15%Al-MOF additive showed a 32.7%increase in regression rate compared to pure HTPB.These results suggest that HTPB-nAl outperforms HTPB-MOF in terms of regression rates,indicating a more vigorous and rapid burning behavior.

Identifying the enhancement mechanism of Al/MoO_(3) reactive multilayered films on the ignition ability of semiconductor bridge using a one-dimensional gas-solid two-phase flow model

Energetic Semiconductor bridge(ESCB)based on reactive multilayered films(RMFs)has a promising application in the miniature and intelligence of initiator and pyrotechnics device.Understanding the ignition enhancement mechanism of RMFs on semiconductor bridge(SCB)during the ignition process is crucial for the engineering and practical application of advanced initiator and pyrotechnics devices.In this study,a one-dimensional(1D)gas-solid two-phase flow ignition model was established to study the ignition process of ESCB to charge particles based on the reactivity of Al/MoO_(3) RMFs.In order to fully consider the coupled exothermic between the RMFs and the SCB plasma during the ignition process,the heat release of chemical reaction in RMFs was used as an internal heat source in this model.It is found that the exothermal reaction in RMFs improved the ignition performance of SCB.In the process of plasma rapid condensation with heat release,the product of RMFs enhanced the heat transfer process between the gas phase and the solid charge particle,which accelerated the expansion of hot plasma,and heated the solid charge particle as well as gas phase region with low temperature.In addition,it made up for pressure loss in the gas phase.During the plasma dissipation process,the exothermal chemical reaction in RMFs acted as the main heating source to heat the charge particle,making the surface temperature of the charge particle,gas pressure,and gas temperature rise continuously.This result may yield significant advantages in providing a universal ignition model for miniaturized ignition devices.

Influence of cyclic ignition and steady-state operation on a 1–2 A barium tungsten hollow cathode

Booming low-power electric propulsion systems require 1–2 A hollow cathodes.Such cathodes are expected to go through more frequent ignitions in the low orbit,but the impact of cyclic ignitions on such 1–2 A barium tungsten hollow cathodes with a heater was not clear.In this study,a 12,638-cyclic ignition test and a 6,000-hour-long life test on two identical cathodes were carried out.The discharge voltage of the cathode and the erosion of the orifice after cyclic ignition were all larger than that of the cathode after stable operation.This indicated that the impact of cycle ignition on the discharge performance of a low current BaO-W cathode with a heater was higher than that of stable operation.The results of the ion energy distribution function measured during the ignition period indicated that the main reason for the orifice expansion was ion bombardment.Therefore,it was necessary to pay attention to the number of ignitions for the lifetime of this kind of cathode.

Spontaneous ignition of corrugated cardboard under dynamic high radiant flux

Understanding the response of solid combustibles under high radiant fluxes is critical in predicting the thermal damage from extreme scenarios.Unlike the more moderate radiant fluxes in conventional hydrocarbon fires,extreme events such as strong explosion,concentrated sunlight and directed energy can generate dynamic radiant fluxes at the MW/m^(2) level,creating a unique threat to materials.This study investigates the pyrolysis and spontaneous ignition behaviors of corrugated cardboard by using both experimental and numerical methods,under 10-cm dynamic high radiant fluxes ranging from 0.2 to 1.25 MW/m^(2) for 10 s.The spontaneous ignition process at dynamic high radiant fluxes was recorded and quantified.Two ignition modes were found at the critical radiant flux of 0.4 MW/m^(2),namely hot-gas spontaneous ignition and hot-residue piloted ignition.The latter is not the focus of this paper due to its extremely small probability of occurrence.The research reveals that the increase in flux intensity induces shorter delay times for both pyrolysis and ignition,lower ignition energy density,along with a corresponding rise in the critical mass flux and surface temperature at ignition moment.The simulation results are generally aligned with the experimental findings,despite some divergences may be attributed to model simplifications and parameter assumptions.The work contributes to a deeper insight into material behavior under extreme radiation,with valuable implications for fire safety and hazard assessment.

Developing a highly scalable synthetic strategy for 5-amino-4-nitrobenzo[1,2-c:3,4-c']bis([1,2,5]oxadiazole)1,b-dioxide(CL-18)and investigating the influence of crystal engineering and positional isomerization on its safety and laser ignition performance

5-amino-4-nitrobenzo[1,2-c:3,4-c']bis([1,2,5]oxadiazole)1,6-dioxide(CL-18)exhibits significant potential as an initiating explosive.However,its current synthesis process remains non-scalable due to low yields and safety risks.In this study,we have developed a simple and safe synthetic route for CL-18.It was synthesized from 3,5-dihaloanisole in a four-step reaction with an overall yield exceeding 60%,surpassing all reported yields in the literature.Subsequently,recrystallization of CL-18 was successfully achieved by carefully selecting appropriate solvents and antisolvents to reduce its mechanical sensitivity.Ultimately,when DMF-ethanol was employed as the recrystallization solvent system,satisfactory product yield(>90%)and reduced mechanical sensitivity(IS=15 J;FS=216 N)were obtained.Additionally,CL-18 is derived from the rearrangement of oxygen atoms on i-CL-18 furoxan,and a comparative analysis of their physicochemical properties was conducted.The thermal stability of both compounds is similar,with onset decomposition temperatures recorded at 186 and 182℃respectively.Similarly,they exhibit 5 s breaking point temperatures of 236 and 237℃.Additionally,we present novel insights into the positional-isomerization-laser-ignition performance of CL-18 and its isomer i-CL-18 using laser irradiation for the first time.Remarkably,our findings demonstrate that i-CL-18 exhibits enhanced laser sensitivity,as it can be directly ignited by a 1064 nm wavelength laser,whereas CL-18 lacks this characteristic.

Velocity analysis of supersonic jet flow in double-cone ignition scheme

In the double-cone ignition schemes(DCIS), the deuterium–tritium target shell is ablated and compressed by a highpower nanosecond laser in Au-cones to generate plasmas. Under the actions of spherically symmetric compression and acceleration along the Au cone, they will be ejected out of the cone mouth and collide with each other. The plasmas experience conversion from kinetic energy to internal energy at the vertex of the geometric center of two Au cones that are symmetric to each other, because of which high-density fusion plasmas are preheated. This key physical process has undergone experimental verification on the Shenguang-II upgraded facility in China. Apparently, the improvement and optimization of the velocity of plasmas in hypersonic jet flow at the cone mouth are crucial for the success of the DCIS. In the DCIR7 experiment of the Shenguang-II upgraded facility, a velocity yield of approximately 130–260 km/s was achieved for the plasmas at the cone mouth, with a result of nearly 300 km/s based on numerical simulation. In this paper, theoretical analysis is performed as regards the process, in which target shells are ablated and compressed by laser to generate highvelocity plasmas ejected through jet flow. Based on this analysis, the formula for the velocity of plasmas in supersonic jet flow at the cone mouth is proposed. This study also provides measures that are more effective for improving the kinetic energy of plasmas and optimizing energy conversion efficiency, which can serve as theoretical references for the adjustment and optimization of processes in subsequent experiments.

Development of a monochromatic crystal backlight imager for the recent double-cone ignition experiments

We developed a monochromatic crystal backlight imaging system for the double-cone ignition(DCI) scheme, employing a spherically bent quartz crystal. This system was used to measure the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of the head-on colliding plasma from the two compressing cones in the DCI experiments. The influence of laser parameters on the x-ray backlighter intensity and spatial resolution of the imaging system was investigated. The imaging system had a spatial resolution of 10 μm when employing a CCD detector. Experiments demonstrated that the system can obtain time-resolved radiographic images with high quality, enabling the precise measurement of the shape, size, and density distribution of the plasma.

Investigation of high rate mechanical flow followed by ignition for high-energy propellant under dynamic extrusion loading

Investigating the ignition response of nitrate ester plasticized polyether(NEPE) propellant under dynamic extrusion loading is of great significant at least for two cases. Firstly, it helps to understand the mechanism and conditions of unwanted ignition inside charged propellant under accident stimulus.Secondly, evaluates the risk of a shell crevice in a solid rocket motor(SRM) under a falling or overturning scene. In the present study, an innovative visual crevice extrusion experiment is designed using a dropweight apparatus. The dynamic responses of NEPE propellant during extrusion loading, including compaction and compression, rapid shear flow into the crevice, stress concentration, and ignition reaction, have been firstly observed using a high-performance high-speed camera. The ignition reaction is observed in the triangular region of the NEPE propellant sample above the crevice when the drop weight velocity was 1.90 m/s. Based on the user material subroutine interface UMAT provided by finite element software LS-DYNA, a viscoelastic-plastic model and dual ignition criterion related to plastic shear dissipation are developed and applied to the local ignition response analysis under crevice extrusion conditions. The stress concentration occurs in the crevice location of the propellant sample, the shear stress is relatively large, the effective plastic work is relatively large, and the ignition reaction is easy to occur. When the sample thickness decreases from 5 mm to 2.5 mm, the shear stress increases from 22.3 MPa to 28.6 MPa, the critical value of effective plastic work required for ignition is shortened from 1280 μs to 730 μs, and the triangular area is easily triggering an ignition reaction. The propellant sample with a small thickness is more likely to stress concentration, resulting in large shear stress and effective work, triggering an ignition reaction.

An analytical model to estimate the time delay to reach spontaneous ignition considering heat loss in oil reservoirs

During air injection into an oil reservoir,an oxidation reaction generates some heat to raise the reservoir temperature.When the reservoir temperature reaches an ignition temperature,spontaneous ignition occurs.There is a time delay from the injection to ignition.There are mixed results regarding the feasibility of spontaneous ignition in real-field projects and in laboratory experiments.No analytical model is available in the literature to estimate the oxidation time required to reach spontaneous ignition with heat loss.This paper discusses the feasibility of spontaneous ignition from theoretical points and experimental and field project observations.An analytical model considering heat loss is proposed.Analytical models with and without heat loss investigate the factors that affect spontaneous ignition.Based on the discussion and investigations,we find that it is more difficult for spontaneous ignition to occur in laboratory experiments than in oil reservoirs;spontaneous ignition is strongly affected by the initial reservoir temperature,oil activity,and heat loss;spontaneous ignition is only possible when the initial reservoir temperature is high,the oil oxidation rate is high,and the heat loss is low.

A Two-Stage Approach for Electric Vehicle Routing Problem with Time Windows and Heterogeneous Recharging Stations

An Electric Vehicle(EV)is an appropriate substitution for traditional transportation means for diminishing greenhouse gas emissions.However,decision-makers are beset by the limited driving range caused by the low battery capacity and the long recharging time.To resolve the former issue,several transportation companies increases the travel distance of the EV by establishing recharging stations in various locations.The proposed Electric Vehicle-Routing Problem with Time Windows(E-VRPTW)and recharging stations are constructed in this context;it augments the VRPTW by reinforcing battery capacity constraints.Meanwhile,super-recharging stations are gradually emerging in the surroundings.They can decrease the recharging time for an EV but consume more energy than regular stations.In this paper,we first extend the E-VRPRTW by adding the elements of super-recharging stations.We then apply a two-stage heuristic algorithm driven by a dynamic programming process to solve the new proposed problem to minimize the travel and total recharging costs.Subsequently,we compare the experimental results of this approach with other algorithms on several sets of benchmark instances.Furthermore,we analyze the impact of super-recharging stations on the total cost of the logistic plan.

Two-Stage Optimal Scheduling of Community Integrated Energy System

From the perspective of a community energy operator,a two-stage optimal scheduling model of a community integrated energy system is proposed by integrating information on controllable loads.The day-ahead scheduling analyzes whether various controllable loads participate in the optimization and investigates the impact of their responses on the operating economy of the community integrated energy system(IES)before and after;the intra-day scheduling proposes a two-stage rolling optimization model based on the day-ahead scheduling scheme,taking into account the fluctuation of wind turbine output and load within a short period of time and according to the different response rates of heat and cooling power,and solves the adjusted output of each controllable device.The simulation results show that the optimal scheduling of controllable loads effectively reduces the comprehensive operating costs of community IES;the two-stage optimal scheduling model can meet the energy demand of customers while effectively and timely suppressing the random fluctuations on both sides of the source and load during the intra-day stage,realizing the economic and smooth operation of IES.

Solar-assisted two-stage catalytic membrane reactor for coupling CO_(2) splitting with methane oxidation reaction

A two-stage catalytic membrane reactor(CMR)that couples CO_(2) splitting with methane oxidation reactions was constructed based on an oxygen-permeable perovskite asymmetric membrane.The asymmetric membrane comprises a dense SrFe_(0.9)Ta_(0.1)O_(3-σ)(SFT)separation layer and a porous Sr_(0.9)(Fe_(0.9)Ta_(0.1))_(0.9)Cu_(0.1)O_(3-σ)(SFTC)catalytic layer.In thefirst stage reactor,a CO_(2) splitting reaction(CDS:2CO_(2)→2CO+O_(2))occurs at the SFTC catalytic layer.Subsequently,the O_(2) product is selectively extracted through the SFT separation layer to the permeated side for the methane combustion reaction(MCR),which provides an extremely low oxygen partial pressure to enhance the oxygen extraction.In the second stage,a Sr_(0.9)(Fe_(0.9)Ta_(0.1))_(0.9)Ni_(0.1)O_(3-σ)(SFTN)catalyst is employed to reform the products derived from MCR.The two-stage CMR design results in a remarkable 35.4%CO_(2) conversion for CDS at 900℃.The two-stage CMR was extended to a hollowfiber configuration combining with solar irradiation.The solar-assisted two-stage CMR can operate stably for over 50 h with a high hydrogen yield of 18.1 mL min^(-1) cm^(-2).These results provide a novel strategy for reducing CO_(2) emissions,suggesting potential avenues for the design of the high-performance CMRs and catalysts based on perovskite oxides in the future.

Two-Stage Planning of Distributed Power Supply and Energy Storage Capacity Considering Hierarchical Partition Control of Distribution Network with Source-Load-Storage

Aiming at the consumption problems caused by the high proportion of renewable energy being connected to the distribution network,it also aims to improve the power supply reliability of the power system and reduce the operating costs of the power system.This paper proposes a two-stage planning method for distributed generation and energy storage systems that considers the hierarchical partitioning of source-storage-load.Firstly,an electrical distance structural index that comprehensively considers active power output and reactive power output is proposed to divide the distributed generation voltage regulation domain and determine the access location and number of distributed power sources.Secondly,a two-stage planning is carried out based on the zoning results.In the phase 1 distribution network-zoning optimization layer,the network loss is minimized so that the node voltage in the area does not exceed the limit,and the distributed generation configuration results are initially determined;in phase 2,the partition-node optimization layer is planned with the goal of economic optimization,and the distance-based improved ant lion algorithm is used to solve the problem to obtain the optimal distributed generation and energy storage systemconfiguration.Finally,the IEEE33 node systemwas used for simulation.The results showed that the voltage quality was significantly improved after optimization,and the overall revenue increased by about 20.6%,verifying the effectiveness of the two-stage planning.

The Effect of Ignition Parameters on the Combustion Characteristics of an Aviation Piston Engine

A cylinder combustion simulation model was established for a two-stroke aviation piston engine used in a small unmanned aerial vehicle. The influence of different ignition system parameters on the combustion process of aviation kerosene was studied using this model. The research results showed that under the working conditions of 5500 r/min and 50% throttle opening, as the ignition energy increased, the peak values of average cylinder pressure and average temperature increased, and the combustion duration shortened, The advance of the combustion center of gravity increases the tendency of the engine to knock. Under the same operating conditions, as the ignition timing advances, the peak values of average pressure and average temperature in the cylinder increase, gradually approaching the top dead center, and the tendency of engine detonation increases more significantly.

Combustion Characteristics and Emission of a Two-Stroke Compression Ignition Engine with Two-Stage Injection

In order to study the effect of two-stage injection on two-stroke diesel engines, a well characterized research engine equipped with electronically controlled common rail system and scavenging system was constructed. Through analysis of combustion and emissions, two-stage injection shows its advantages. Compared with the standard injection, it produces less emissions, while compared with single early injection, it expands engine operation range. Further experiments were carried out to study the influence of several injection control parameters on two-stage injection. The fuel in the first injection is used for forming homogeneous mixture. The fuel in the second injection keeps combustion, and it is the main source of smoke emissions. NO_x is formed in both combustion process caused by these two injections, and there is an optimum fuel allocation ration to produce minimum NO_x. The cylinder pressure decreases, and the combustion is depressed with the increasing of scavenging pressure. By optimizing the injection control parameters of two-stage injection, NO_x and smoke can be reduced beyond 30% simultaneously.

Influence of two-stage harvesting on the properties of cold-pressed rapeseed(Brassica napus L.)oils

Rapeseed(Brassica napus L.)harvesting method is critical since it significantly determines the seed yield,oil quality,and industrial efficiency.This study investigated the influences of harvesting methods on the quality of cold-pressed rapeseed oil of two varieties.Oil color,peroxide value(POV),tocopherol content,fatty acid composition,and polarity of total polyphenols(PTP)contents of two rapeseed varieties in Huanggang and Xiangyang were compared through artificially simulated combined harvesting and two-stage harvesting.Results showed significant differences in the quality of rapeseed oil between the two harvesting methods.The red value(R-value),POV,total tocopherol contents,linoleic and linolenic acid content,and PTP content of the pressed rapeseed oil prepared by the combined harvesting method were about 27.6,5.7,15.8,2.0,0.5,and 28.6%lower than those of the oil produced from the two-stage harvesting method,respectively.Xiangyang and Huayouza62 performed better in the two regions and two varieties,respectively.To sum up,the rapeseed oil obtained 41–44 days after final flowering of combined harvesting,35 days after final flowering,and six days of post-ripening of the two-stage harvesting had the best quality.

Numerical study of inhibition mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen leakage self-ignition with the addition of ammonia

Hydrogen and ammonia have attracted increasing attention as carbon-free fuels.Ammonia is considered to be an effective energy storage and hydrogen storage medium.However,a small amount of unremoved NH3 is still present in the product during the decomposition of ammonia to produce hydrogen.Therefore,it is very essential to investigate the self-ignition of hydrogen-ammonia mixtures in order to accommodate the various scenarios of hydrogen energy applications.In this paper,the effect of NH3 addition on the self-ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release is numerically investigated.The RNG k-εturbulence model,EDC combustion model,and 213-step detailed NH_(3)/H_(2) combustion mechanism are used.CHEMKIN-Pro programs for zero-dimensional homogeneous and constant volume adiabatic reactor models are used for sensitivity analysis and ignition delay time of the chemical reaction mechanism.The results showed that the minimum burst pressure required for self-ignition increased significantly after the addition of ammonia.The maximum temperature and shock wave intensity inside the tube decreases with increasing ammonia concentration.The ignition delay time and H,HO2,and OH radicals reduce with increasing ammonia concentration.H and HO2 radicals are suggested as indicators for tracking the second and third flame branches,respectively.

Thermal and ignition properties of hexanitrostilbene(HNS) microspheres prepared by droplet microfluidics

HNS-IV(Hexanitrostilbene-IV) is the main charge of the exploding foil initiators(EFI), and the microstructure of the HNS will directly affect its density, flowability, sensitivity, and stability. HNS microspheres were prepared using droplet microfluidics, and the particle size, morphology, specific surface area, thermal performance, and ignition threshold of the HNS microspheres were characterized and tested. The results shown that the prepared HNS microspheres have high sphericity, with an average particle size of 20.52 μm(coefficient of variation less than 0.2), and a specific surface area of 21.62 m^(2)/g(6.87 m^(2)/g higher than the raw material). Without changing the crystal structure and thermal stability of HNS-IV, this method significantly enhances the sensitivity of HNS-IV to short pulses and reduces the ignition threshold of the slapper detonator to below 1000 V. This will contribute to the miniaturization and low cost of EFI.