Regional Coordination for under Frequency Load Shedding

Frequency deviation can be used as an indicator of imbalance between supply and demand. When generation is insufficient, it can cause frequency decline in a power system operation. Implementing under frequency load shedding (UFLS) is one of the common methods to overcome this problem. This paper proposes a novel approach for adaptive load shedding. The concept is an extension of shared and targeted load shedding using reserve margin. The optimal system configuration is then selected from those candidates to fulfill operational objectives. Operational constraints related to system parameters, threshold frequency, total of load shed and control area including line capacity are considered. An example using four sub-areas connected to an external system shows that the proposed regional coordination as an adaptive UFLS is feasible.

Distributed Model Predictive Load Frequency Control of Multi-area Power System with DFIGs

Reliable load frequency control LFC is crucial to the operation and design of modern electric power systems. Considering the LFC problem of a four-Area interconnected power system with wind turbines, this paper presents a distributed model predictive control DMPC based on coordination scheme. The proposed algorithm solves a series of local optimization problems to minimize a performance objective for each control area. The generation rate constraints GRCs, load disturbance changes, and the wind speed constraints are considered. Furthermore, the DMPC algorithm may reduce the impact of the randomness and intermittence of wind turbine effectively. A performance comparison between the proposed controller with and without the participation of the wind turbines is carried out. Analysis and simulation results show possible improvements on closed-loop performance, and computational burden with the physical constraints. © 2014 Chinese Association of Automation.

Design of Nichols PID Controller for Load Frequency Control

为解决互联水电系统负荷频率控制（load frequencycontrol,LFC）问题,及保持互联电网系统频率、联络线功率及区域控制误差（area control error,ACE）的稳定,根据闭环系统谐振峰值与系统响应最大峰值之间的关系,构建一个与系统参数及控制器参数都相关的优化问题,通过该问题的求解获得控制器参数与系统参数之间的数学关系,针对水轮发电系统非最小相位特性,通过串加比例–微分（proportional-derivative,PD）控制方式降低系统阶次,设计尼科尔斯（Nichols）曲线的比例–积分–微分（proportional-integral-derivative,PID）控制器。基于模型参数扰动和负荷干扰的仿真结果表明：尼科尔斯PID控制器能快速调整系统频率偏差、联络线功率偏差及ACE为0,具有良好的鲁棒性能和抗负荷干扰性能,系统过渡过程性能明显优于传统PID调节器结果。

Hierarchical under frequency load shedding scheme for inter-connected power systems

Severe disturbances in a power network can cause the system frequency to exceed the safe operating range.As the last defensive line for system emergency control,under frequency load shedding(UFLS)is an important method for preventing a wide range of frequency excursions.This paper proposes a hierarchical UFLS scheme of“centralized real-time decision-making and decentralized real-time control”for inter-connected systems.The centralized decision-layer of the scheme takes into account the importance of the load based on the equivalent transformation of kinetic energy(KE)and potential energy(PE)in the transient energy function(TEF),while the load PE is used to determine the load shedding amount(LSA)allocation in different loads after faults in real-time.At the same time,the influence of inertia loss is considered in the calculation of unbalanced power,and the decentralized control center is used to implement the one-stage UFLS process to compensate for the unbalanced power.Simulations are carried out on the modified New England 10-generator 39-bus system and 197-bus system in China to verify the performance of the proposed scheme.The results show that,compared with other LSA allocation indicators,the proposed alloca-tion indicators can achieve better fnadir and td.At the same time,compared with other multi-stage UFLS schemes,the proposed scheme can obtain the maximum fnadir with a smaller LSA in scenarios with high renewable energy sources(RES)penetration.

Normalization method for asphalt mixture fatigue equation under different loading frequencies

In order to analyze the effect of different loading frequencies on the fatigue performance for asphalt mixture,the changing law of asphalt mixture strengths with loading speed was revealed by strength tests under different loading speeds.Fatigue equations of asphalt mixtures based on the nominal stress ratio and real stress ratio were established using fatigue tests under different loading frequencies.It was revealed that the strength of the asphalt mixture is affected by the loading speed greatly.It was also discovered that the fatigue equation based on the nominal stress ratio will change with the change of the fatigue loading speed.There is no uniqueness.But the fatigue equation based on the real stress ratio doesn't change with the loading frequency.It has the uniqueness.The results indicate the fatigue equation based on the real stress ratio can realize the normalization of the asphalt mixture fatigue equation under different loading frequencies.It can greatly benefit the analysis of the fatigue characteristics under different vehicle speeds for asphalt pavement.

Neural-Network-Based Terminal Sliding Mode Control for Frequency Stabilization of Renewable Power Systems

This paper addresses a terminal sliding mode control(T-SMC) method for load frequency control(LFC) in renewable power systems with generation rate constraints(GRC).A two-area interconnected power system with wind turbines is taken into account for simulation studies. The terminal sliding mode controllers are assigned in each area to achieve the LFC goal. The increasing complexity of the nonlinear power system aggravates the effects of system uncertainties. Radial basis function neural networks(RBF NNs) are designed to approximate the entire uncertainties. The terminal sliding mode controllers and the RBF NNs work in parallel to solve the LFC problem for the renewable power system. Some simulation results illustrate the feasibility and validity of the presented scheme.

一种风电场经VSC-HVDC并网的VSG变参数负荷频率控制策略

风电的大规模并网导致系统等效惯量下降、不确定性增加,给电力系统的负荷频率控制(loadfrequency control,LFC)带来新的挑战。考虑到柔性直流输电系统(voltage source converter based high voltage DC,VSC-HVDC)具有的潜在调频能力,对此展开研究,针对风电场经VSC-HVDC并网的情形提出了一种虚拟同步发电机(virtual synchronous generator,VSG)变参数负荷频率控制策略。首先,在风电场经VSC-HVDC并网的LFC模型及拓扑结构分析基础上,为了提高VSC-HVDC的可控性,对换流器的控制环节进行了VSG控制方法的设计;然后,对VSG控制参数与频率变化的关联性进行分析,并基于分数阶梯度下降法(fractional-order gradient descent method,FOGDM),利用频率的分数阶导数提取频率深层变化特征,以优化VSG控制参数;在此基础上,考虑到系统的不确定性,设计触发机制对VSG变参数优化模式进行调整,以降低VSG参数的变换频次,提高系统频率控制的针对性。仿真结果表明:所提控制方法能有效改善电网负荷频率控制效果,具有良好的适应性。

多频率组合波形阵风场模拟与测量研究

基于数值模拟方法选取设定FL-51风洞阵风发生器的装置参数,如发生器叶片的数量、展长、弦长及间距等。发生器采用液压摆动缸独立驱动形式,可模拟正弦波、三角波及随机波等多种波形的多频率组合运动,同时能够减少安装传动件,并提升发生器性能。通过阵风场校测结果表明:叶片能够实现摆动频率为0 Hz~15 Hz,在校测范围内发生器产生的正弦流场较均匀;在来流风速40 m/s、叶片摆动频率为10 Hz、摆角为15°时,最大阵风幅值为8.5 m/s。地面测试与流场校测结果表明:该文所提出的阵风场模拟技术可以实现低速风洞多频率多波形组合运动,为风洞试验提供复杂的阵风流场。

计及恒定减载桨距角控制的风电高占比电力系统频率动态特性分析

在新型电力系统中,风电主动参与电网频率调节已成为必然,如何评估风电参与调频对频率动态特性的影响也成为了研究热点。围绕现有的风电调频措施,提出一种可以在额定风速前减少变桨动作次数的恒定减载桨距角的改进风电机组变桨控制,推导出该控制下风电机组参与一次调频的调差系数表达式。基于此构建了含恒定减载桨距角控制的电力系统频率响应模型。推导出频率动态特性指标的解析表达式,揭示了风速、初始桨距角等对风电机组调差系数及频率动态特性的影响机理。通过改进的IEEE三机九节点系统验证了所构建频率等值模型的准确性以及所提调频方法的有效性和可行性。

采用可控负荷灵敏度的DFIG并网电力系统低频振荡模式抑制

双馈感应发电机(doubly fed induction generator,DFIG)并网加剧了低频振荡(low-frequency oscillations,LFO)。电力市场和智能用电设备,使得负荷可参与阻尼控制。此时危险模式阻尼比受负荷影响,增加特征灵敏度解析表达难度。现有恒阻抗模型,不能反映综合负荷对小扰动稳定影响;异步电机模型精确,但参数辨识难度大,很难用于小扰动稳定分析。该文为避免潮流计算和稳定分析中负荷模型差异,采用ZIP负荷模型修正系统状态方程。以潮流解对负荷灵敏度为中间变量,提出危险模式阻尼比对负荷灵敏度的解析表达。引入准比例谐振控制(quasi-proportional resonance,qPR)调节负荷,相应修正阻尼比灵敏度,以改善阻尼控制的鲁棒性。仿真结果验证了所提算法的控制效果。

计及风力发电机转速安全约束的DFIG一次调频模型预测控制策略

针对传统方法控制双馈感应发电机(DFIG)的调频效果过于依赖参数整定的问题,该文提出了一种基于模型预测控制(MPC),计及转速安全约束的风力发电机参与一次调频控制策略。该方法结合风力发电机动力学模型与频率响应模型建立预测模型,通过线性回归方法变参考值将风力发电机转速的稳定性纳入考虑。相较于虚拟惯性控制等方法将系统频率偏差与转子动能直接关联,该文方法通过建立全新的预测模型,实时统筹考虑整个系统的状态信息,无需反复调整参数,在考虑转速安全性的同时兼顾全局性能。最后,通过实际算例分析验证了该文调频策略的有效性以及相对现有方法的优越性。

考虑源荷特性的双馈风电机组动态减载协同调频控制

为使双馈风电机组(doubly fed induction generator,DFIG)的有功输出能响应电网频率的变化,有效参与电网频率调节,提高风电系统的稳定性,文中分析了虚拟惯性控制、下垂控制以及减载控制的基本原理,探究了相关参数对风电并网系统频率特性的影响。在此基础上,提出一种考虑系统源荷特性的动态减载协同调频控制策略。该策略结合源荷扰动情况实现减载率修正,通过MATLAB/SIMULINK仿真验证表明:当负荷波动时,该控制策略相较于固定减载调频使含风电系统在不同风速下的频率稳定性有了显著提高。

Adaptive Under-Frequency Load Shedding

Under-frequency load shedding （UFLS） is used in the power industry to rescue systems facing extreme disturbances to avoid system collapse. Traditionally, many computations are repeated to seek the proper power system settings such that the UFLS provides the desired good performance for selected scenarios. An adaptive UFLS method based on the genetic algorithm was developed to automate the finding of optimal parameters to minimize the repetitive trial-error calculations. Simulations demonstrate that the method has better performance than previous schemes and reduces the time and effort of the repetitive simulations.

基于可进化模型预测控制的含电动汽车多微电网智能发电控制策略

多微电网中的环境状态、控制资源及偶然事件均具有强不确定性,而电动汽车在参与电网削峰填谷的同时也给发电控制带来了挑战。为此,该文提出一种基于可进化模型预测控制(LBMPC)的含电动汽车多微电网发电控制策略。首先,基于控制器交互的多微电网互联结构,考虑了发电机端电压调节和负荷频率控制(LFC)之间的耦合关系,建立含电动汽车多微电网的发电控制模型;然后,设计了一种基于多智能体的控制器参数自适应算法:频率控制器以实时频偏和EV站输出功率边界为状态集,以模型预测控制(MPC)控制器的可调参数矩阵Q_(x)作为动作集,以频率偏差为奖励函数指标,电压控制器同理,从而实现MPC与PI控制器权重参数的自适应调整;最后,仿真结果表明,自动调压(AVR)回路增加了有功功率干扰,对LFC控制器提出了更高的要求,与传统控制和MPC算法相比,应用于控制器互联结构的可进化模型预测控制器能够在子微电网之间进行信息交换,并且根据环境状态实时更新控制器参数,显著提高了多微电网频率控制过程的鲁棒性和快速性。同时,与纯深度确定性策略梯度(DDPG)控制器相比,该文提出的双层控制结构在机器学习智能体出现故障无法正常输出动作时,能更好地保证系统的安全稳定运行。

基于双人零和博弈的孤岛微电网有界L2增益负荷频率控制

针对含不确定建模误差和新能源接入的孤岛微电网,提出了一种结合有界L2增益基线控制和扰动补偿的综合负荷频率控制(LFC)方法。首先,推导了微电网的全驱模型,将建模误差和新能源的影响总结成一个综合扰动。为提高系统的鲁棒性,该综合扰动被定义成控制信号的对手玩家。进一步,关于扰动抑制的有界L2增益问题被等价成求解综合扰动和控制信号的零和博弈Nash均衡,由此推导出有界L2增益基线控制器。为改善频率的二次控制,设计了基于五阶广义积分观测器的扰动补偿控制,并在此基础上引入了一种针对发电速率约束(GRC)的新型抗发电速率约束(anti-GRC)措施。最后,搭建了16 MW的新能源-柴油混合微电网仿真模型,并在多种工况下对所提出的综合LFC方法进行测试,验证了其有效性。

计及典型控制的风电场调频能力量化评估及影响因素分析

为尽可能充分利用风电场支撑功率,避免资源浪费,有必要量化评估风电场的调频能力。然而,风电场调频能力缺乏定义且难以评估,运行参数及边界约束对支撑能力的影响机理不明。为此,定义了多时间尺度、多能量形式、多评估层次的指标,从而精准量化评估调频能力。基于所提评估指标,通过分析风电场运行参数对调频能力的作用机理,揭示了转速是低风速和低减载工况下的主要影响因素,而载荷与容量是高风速和高减载工况下的主要影响因素等结论。进一步,提出了基于非线性规划模型的方法对评估指标进行精确计算。最后,对四机两区域系统中下垂和减载控制下的单机聚合风电场进行了算例分析,验证了所提评估指标的合理性和评估方法的准确性,以及关键影响因素分析结论的正确性。

考虑构网型风电频率响应的电力系统低频减载策略研究

大规模构网型风电机组并网会改变电力系统频率响应特性,而传统低频减载策略尚未计及构网型风电机组的影响,可能导致大功率缺额后的系统减载量不合理。文章提出一种考虑构网型风电频率响应的电力系统低频减载策略。首先,基于构网型风电虚拟惯量和一次调频控制模型,建立计及构网型风电频率响应的系统频率响应简化模型;其次,分析构网型风电的有功响应特性对系统不平衡功率量的影响,进而精细化估算用于指导电网多轮次减载的不平衡功率量,从而提出自适应低频减载实施策略;最后,通过算例分析,验证了文章所提低频减载策略的可行性和有效性。

基于变下垂系数的风电全直流输电系统一次调频协调控制策略

风电场经直流汇集-直流送出的风电全直流输电系统中,直流系统的存在会解耦风电场和受端电网的频率耦合,在传统控制策略下对受端电网频率支撑能力弱。为此,提出一种针对风电全直流输电系统的一次调频变下垂协调控制策略。首先,提出基于Logistic函数的电压-频率变下垂频率传递策略,以直流系统电压为媒介,建立起电网频率与风电场功率的耦合关系。基于该频率传递策略,构建了由受端换流站的变下垂虚拟同步发电机(virtual synchronous generator,VSG)控制、直流升压站的改进双闭环控制及风力发电机的变下垂减载控制组成的风电全直流输电系统一次调频协调控制策略,实现系统无通信传递频率并参与电网一次调频。最后,利用Matlab/Simulink软件搭建风电全直流输电系统仿真模型,在不同工况下进行仿真验证。仿真结果表明,所提控制策略能使风电场在不依赖远端通信的情况下实现对电网的一次调频,同时,有效减小了调频过程中直流电压的波动幅度。

速度160 km/h列车通过隧道时侧向气动力变化特征

[目的]我国某动车组以160 km/h的速度在明线运行时列车平稳性良好,但通过单线隧道时尾车出现周期性横向晃动的问题,需要对该动车组过隧道时列车气动特性进行深入研究。[方法]采用数值模拟方法,基于RNG k-ε湍流模型和滑移网格技术,建立了带有转向架的某动车组的三维可压缩瞬态仿真模型,研究了列车通过隧道时尾车表面压力变化情况;同时,在时域和频域内分析了列车侧向气动力特征的瞬态性质。[结果及结论]由于隧道壁面对空气流动的限制和列车尾绕流的作用,列车通过隧道时车体两侧存在压差并呈现出交替变化的特征,并且尾车侧向力交变特征更明显;列车所受侧向力具有低频周期性交变特点,主频约为2.2 Hz,且在尾车刚进隧道时气动效应最强,侧向力波动幅度最大;列车侧向力变化值可作为车辆横向平稳性分析的边界条件。

基于一致性算法的新能源电力系统风电机组一次调频控制

为使风电机组能够响应新能源电力系统频率变化,提高系统运行稳定性,该文提出基于一致性算法的新能源电力系统风电机组一次调频控制方法。计算各台风电机组最优减载率,将其作为依据,实现全风速工况风电机组减载控制,利用各风电机组的预留功率弥补新能源电力系统有功功率缺额,若有不足,通过储能单元予以补充,确保新能源电力系统平稳运行。实验结果表明,该方法可获取新能源电力系统全局信息,在全风速工况下,减载控制后的风电机组预留功率可满足新能源电力系统有功功率缺额,系统频率偏差较小。