Status and distribution of ungulates in Xinjiang,China

Based on a long-term field investigation and other research results, we reviewed the status and distribution of ungulates in Xinjiang, China. The ungulates in Xinjiang included 19 ungulate species （30 subspecies） from 6 families and 2 orders. Among them, 3 species （2 subspecies） relate to Equidae （Per- risodactyla）, and 16 species （28 subspecies） are from 5 families of Artiodactyla. In this paper, we analyzed the conservation status of most rare and important 13 ungulate species. Firstly, we proposed the protec- tion of genetic diversity of Camelus ferus and the distribution areas of Moschus sifanicus, Procapra przewalskii and Saiga tatarica in Xinjiang. We found that Moschus sifanicus but not Procapra przewalskii distributed in Xinjiang. It was not clear whether the remnant populations of Saiga tatarica existed in Xinjiang and China-Kazakhstan border or not. We discussed that the protection level and rational use of Capra si- birica and enhancing protection level and enlarging monitoring and research projects for Pantholops hodgsoni and Gazella subgutturosa. And we would like to suggest Forestry Department to develop the captive breeding of Tibetan antelope for rational use. In addition, the captive breeding of Cervus elaphus in Xinjiang was reviewed. Local government should lessen strong control to Cervus elaphus because of many breeding centers＇ establishment.

Comparative sensitivity to environmental variation and human disturbance of Asian tapirs (Tapirus indicus) and other wild ungulates in Thailand

Southeast Asia’s tropical forests suffer the highest rates of deforestation and disturbance of any on Earth,with poorly understood impacts on native fauna.Asian tapirs(Tapirus indicus)are among the least studied of the large mammals in these forests.Using records from 9 camera trap surveys in 7 of the largest(>1000 km2)pro-tected area complexes,we assessed the influence of environmental variation and human-induced disturbance on tapir occurrence.Tapirs were detected at 13%of locations sampled,significantly associated with evergreen for-est(P<0.001).A multiple logistic regression model predicted tapir presence 87%of the time.According to this model,tapir occurrence was positively influenced by annual rainfall and proximity to the forest edge.Howev-er,tapirs may not avoid edges but instead prefer wetter evergreen forest,a habitat type that tended to occur fur-ther from the forest edge at higher elevations in our particular study sites(P<0.001).By comparison,4 other wild ungulate species that share habitats with tapirs showed a range of differing responses.Tapirs are expect-ed to be less sensitive to disturbance because they are not targets for hunting and trade,and are almost entire-ly active at night,so avoid peak traffic periods in parks.Tapir populations in Thailand may be more stable than in other parts of their global range because rates of forest loss have decreased>40%over the past 20 years.We recommend surveys to fill gaps in the understanding of the status in lesser-known protected areas,research to better understand the fine-scale environmental influences on behavior and habitats of tapirs,and other forest un-gulates,and continued legal status for tapirs in the highest category of protection.

Browse silage as potential feed for captive wild ungulates in southern Africa:A review

The objective of the review was to assess the potential of indigenous browse trees as sustainable feed supplement in the form of silage for captive wild ungulates.Several attempts to use silage as feed in zoos in temperate regions have been conducted with success.Information on silage from the indigenous browse trees preferred by wild ungulates in southern Africa is scanty.The use of silage from the browse trees is of interest as it has potential to reduce or replace expensive feed sources(pellets,fruits and farm produce) currently offered in southern African zoos,game farms and reserves,especially during the colddry season.Considerable leaf biomass from the indigenous browse trees can be produced for silage making.High nutrient content and minerals from indigenous browsable trees are highly recognised.Indigenous browse trees have low water-soluble carbohydrates(WSC) that render them undesirable for fermentation.Techniques such as wilting browse leaves,mixing cereal crops with browse leaves,and use of additives such as urea and enzymes have been studied extensively to increase WSC of silage from the indigenous browse trees.Anti-nutritional factors from the indigenous browse preferred by the wild ungulates have also been studied extensively.Indigenous browse silages are a potential feed resource for the captive wild ungulates.If the browse trees are used to make silage,they are likely to improve performance of wild ungulates in captivity,especially during the cold-dry season when browse is scarce.Research is needed to assess the feasibility of sustainable production and the effective use of silage from indigenous browse trees in southern Africa.Improving intake and nutrient utilisation and reducing the concentrations of anti-nutritional compounds in silage from the indigenous browse trees of southern Africa should be the focus for animal nutrition research that need further investigation.

Regional Copper Deficiency in White-Tailed Deer

Minerals are critical in maintaining health and physiological function in wildlife. Geographic variation in soil and forage mineral concentration may predispose wildlife to mineral imbalances, where a common symptom is restricted somatic growth. We investigated if mineral imbalances could explain localized differences in morphology of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) occurring in geographically proximate sites with similar management, climate, and habitat. We collected serum samples and morphological measurements from free-ranging white-tailed deer captured during 2011-2019 from coastal and inland rangeland sites in South Texas, USA. We measured mineral concentrations in serum from captured deer at each location. Asymptotic deer body mass and antler size averaged 8% - 20% smaller for deer at the coastal compared to the inland site. The proportion of deer with deficient levels of serum copper was greater at the coastal site (66% versus 14%). Our results suggest regional mineral deficiencies in deer may limit antler and body development. Wildlife managers should be aware of all aspects of wildlife nutrition and the importance of considering nutrients beyond energy and protein.

A guide for selecting the appropriate plot design to measure ungulate browsing

Ungulate browsing often impairs tree regeneration,thus preventing the achievement of economic or conservation goals.Forest ungulate management would thus benefit from a practical decision tool that facilitates method selection from a wide range of monitoring methods and indicators currently available.In this study,we first provide an overview of the different browsing-impact monitoring methods and indicators currently applied.We then present a newly developed decision matrix for method evaluation that can assist forest stakeholders in choosing the browsing-impact monitoring method best suited to their needs,based on the selected indicators.The first step involved two separate literature reviews to create an overview of the currently applied methods and to select the indicators best suited for measuring browsing impact.Three types of indicator groups with their respective parameters were considered important for method evaluation:browsing indicators(e.g.regeneration density,browsing incidents),performance indicators(e.g.expense,expertise)and data quality indicators(e.g.susceptibility to measurement errors).Subsequently,all parameters defined within each indicator group were categorised and a grade was assigned to each category.To create the final method-indicator matrix,each browsing-impact monitoring method received a grade for each parameter within all indicator groups,reflecting the specific advantages and disadvantages of implementing the respective parameter within a specific method.The utility of the matrix in selecting the most suitable monitoring method was then demonstrated using the example of Germany's national parks.Based on the weights added to the method-indicator matrix,as defined by national park representatives,and considering local requirements the nearest-tree method was favoured over the other two methods.This newly developed matrix provides a more scientific objectification of ungulate browsing-impact measures and can be easily used by forest managers to address their own requirements,based on a consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of the included methods.

Modeling habitat suitability and utilization of the last surviving populations of fallow deer(Dama dama Linnaeus,1758)

DüzlerçamıWildlife Reserve Area(WRA)is the last natural habitat of fallow deer(Dama dama)in the world.Fallow deer is native to Turkey,however,its geographical range is currently confined to DüzlerçamıWRA,Antalya.To date,a detailed habitat investigation of fallow deer dis-tribution has not been conducted.This study is vital for the last surviving populations of fallow deer in Turkey.There-fore,we studied the habitat suitability and utilization of fal-low deer in the DüzlerçamıWRA.Vegetation and wildlife inventory was surveyed across a total of 304 sample areas between 2015 and 2017.Plant species were recorded accord-ing to the Braun-Blanquet method and wildlife surveys were based on footprints,feces,and other signs of fallow deer.Classification and regression tree techniques,as well as MAXENT,were used to model vegetation and fallow deer habitat.Topographic position index,terrain ruggedness index,roughness index,elevation,and bedrock formation were also calculated and included in the models.Based on our results,we drafted a habitat protection map for fallow deer.To ensure sustainability of habitats where populations of fallow deer are found in Turkey,we developed recommen-dations such as closuring human access of the 1st-degree Protection Area and reintroduction of the species to other potential habitats.

Environmental and biological factors affecting the abundance of Prosopis flexuosa saplings in the central-west Monte of Argentina

Background:Trees and forests in drylands help mitigate the challenges through provision of economic products and vital environmental services such as habitat for biodiversity,prevention of erosion and desertification,regulation of water,microclimate,and soil fertility.The condition and changes in dry forests can be assessed by using ecological indicators able to quantify spatial and temporal changes in vegetation.One of the ways to determine the condition of the forest is to study the dominant tree species and its regeneration.Our study aimed to assess whether the abundance of Prosopis flexuosa saplings is affected by environmental and biological factors.Results:To evaluate the first variables we used data from remote sensing such as satellite images and Aster Global Digital Model(GDEM).The second set of variables was about exotic and native ungulates and we used feces of these animals and camera traps to take data.We found that sapling abundance related positively to sandy substrates and negatively to Wetness Index.On the other hand,in relation to biological variables,the abundance of saplings was positively affected by density of adult trees and by number of seeds dispersed by equines,but space use by Lama guanicoe had a negative relationship with saplings.This research shows that P.flexuosa saplings are benefited from sandy substrates and the conditions around adult trees.In addition to this,we found that exotic ungulates in low densities have neutral(i.e.cattle)or positive(i.e.equines)effects on sapling abundance.Conclusions:Based on these findings,we conclude that regeneration of the population of P.flexuosa in our study area has no major problems.In addition,we corroborated that the presence of exotic and domestic ungulates in low densities does not have deleterious consequences for saplings of the dominant tree,P.flexuosa.

Sustainable use of wildlife resources in Central Asia

Initially,hunting was the primary means for getting food for the survival of ancient people.As time passed,people started to breed livestock and develop agriculture,gradually reducing their reliance on unpredictability of hunting.People,however,continued to hunt and,even though their survival did not depend on hunting.During the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR)period,attitudes toward the use of natural resources fluctuated significantly,and after the establishment of new reserves for wildlife protection,the government soon weakened protections it had introduced.In the current,the organizations in dependent countries of the USSR that are chartered to protect areas with wildlife diversity are very weak and have no sufficient material resources to provide any real control of poaching,especially when hunting weapons and ammunition are easily available.Trophy hunting companies exploit wildlife resources but do not make protecting wildlife from poaching as a priority in their work;they just use whatever resources are available as if they are unlimited.To help solve this problem,we suggest to organize the local people to join the wildlife protection societies and give them official rights to benefit from the development of hunting tourism in the future.There are numerous examples of successful and very profitable hunting businesses in different countries in the world.In Central Asia,all the prerequisites exist for organizing highly effective trophy hunting tourism,maintaining the richness of biodiversity,and at the same time providing a sustainable and significant income for local communities as the country as a whole.The sustainable use of wildlife resources is a very tangible challenge in the countries of Central Asia,and the most important consideration is to establish and enforce hunting laws equally,irrespective of a person’s social status or financial assets,otherwise no laws will work.

Forest pasturing of livestock in Norway: effects on spruce regeneration

Forest pasturing of free-roaming livestock is a common prac- tice in many parts of the world, but knowledge on how it affects tree regeneration in boreal forests is lacking. We mapped tree density, live- stock site use and accumulated damage to young trees of commercial interest （Norway spruce, Picea abies L. Karst.） on 56 clearcuts inside and outside a fenced forest area used for livestock pasturing in Ringsaker, Norway. Inside the fence 56-1.8% of spruce trees were damaged com- pared to 37-3.4% outside. Proportion of damaged spruce trees was posi- tively related to cattle use of the clearcut, but not so for sheep. On the most intensively used clearcuts, four out of five trees were damaged. The density of deciduous trees was five times lower inside compared to out- side of the fence （varying with plant species）. While livestock grazing may reduce resource competition in favour of spruce, the current animal density clearly is impeding forest regeneration in the study area.

An annotated checklist of mammals of Kenya

Kenya has a rich mammalian fauna. We reviewed recently published books and papers including the six volumes of Mammals of Africa to develop an up-to-date annotated checklist of all mammals recorded from Kenya. A total of 390 species have been identified in the country, including 106 species of rodents,104 species of bats, 63 species of even-toed ungulates(including whales and dolphins), 36 species of insectivores and carnivores, 19 species of primates,five species of elephant shrews, four species of hyraxes and odd-toed ungulates, three species of afrosoricids, pangolins, and hares, and one species of aardvark, elephant, sirenian and hedgehog. The number of species in this checklist is expected to increase with additional surveys and as the taxonomic status of small mammals(e.g., bats, shrews and rodents) becomes better understood.

Assessment of Three Methods for Estimating Abundance of Ungulate Populations

The accuracy of three methods (pellet group count, inverse line transect method and track count) for estimat-ing the density of ungulate population was assessed, based on a wapiti population with the known size in the enclosure of500 hm2 on Tonghe Hunting Farm, Heilongjiang province, China, during 1992-1993. The estimation of population densityusing the Pelld group count method was the closeSt to the actual value, whereas the density of the wapiti population wasunderestimated by the inverse line transect method and overestimated by the track count method. No signilicant differenceexisted the estimated and actual values for the pellet group method and the inverse line transed method, but thesignificant differen was found for the track count method. Therefore, it is suggested that the pellet group method should begiven the priority in the survey of ungulate population abundance in practice.

Reproductive biology of Gazella arabica: Predictors of offspring weight and short- and long-term offspring survival

Reproductive traits are central to organismal fitness,and so the factors influencing patterns of reproduction and offspring survival are at the heart of biology.Making use of breeding data collected over 16 years at the King Khalid Wildlife Research Centre in Saudi Arabia,we investigated the reproductive biology of Arabian gazelles Gazella arabica.Offspring survival was mainly a function of birth weight,with heavier offspring having higher survival rates than lighter offspring.However,while sons were heavier than daughters,daughters had higher survival rates.We could not find evidence that giving birth to sons negatively impacts offspring weight in the following year.We uncovered large narrow-sense heritability(h2)in offspring weight at birth,while maternal effects(m2)on birth weight were of lesser importance.However,maternal effects on offspring survival were strong until weaning age,while paternal effects dominated survival to sexual maturity and first reproduction.We propose that variation in maternal postnatal care might overshadow the effects of maternal inheritance of birth weights,while the overall strong heritability of weight at birth and the paternal effects on survival llustrates strong variance in sire fitness based on genetic quality,suggesting a role for sexual selectionbyfemalemate choiceinwildpopulations.

Spatiotemporal behavior of predators and prey in an arid environment of Central Asia

The mechanisms of interactions between apex and smaller carnivores may range from competition to facilitation.Conversely,interactions between predators and prey are mainly driven by the prey reducing the likelihood of encounters with predators.In this study,we investigated(1)the spatiotemporal interactions between an apex(the snow leopard)and a meso-predator(the red fox),and(2)the temporal interactions between the snow leopard and its potential prey(Siberian ibex,argali,Asian wild ass,Tolai hare)through camera trapping in the Mongolian Great Gobi-A.The probability of occurrence for the red fox was higher in the presence of the snow leopard than in its absence.Moreover,the red fox activity pattern matched that of the snow leopard,with both species mostly active at sunset.This positive spatiotemporal interaction suggests that the presence of the snow leopard may be beneficial for the red fox in terms of scavenging opportunities.However,other explanations may also be possible.Amongst prey,the Siberian ibex and the argali were mainly active during the day,whereas the Asian wild ass and the Tolai hare were more nocturnal.These findings suggest that potential prey(especially the Siberian ibex and the argali)may shape their behavior to decrease the opportunity for encounters with the snow leopard.Our results have revealed complex interactions between apex and smaller predators andbetween apexpredatorand its potential prey.

Climate,female traits and population features as drivers of breeding timing in Mediterranean red deer populations

Understanding the factors that lead to variation in the timing of breeding in widespread species such as red deer(Cervus elaphus)is crucial to predict possible responses of wild populations to different climate scenarios.Here,we sought to further understand the causes of inter-annual variation in the reproduction timing of female deer in Mediterranean environments.An integrative approach was used to identify the relative importance of individual,population and climate traits in the date of conception of free-ranging deer,based on a dataset of 829 hinds culled during 12 years.We found that a population trait,density,was the most important factor explaining the variation in conception dates,with greater densities causing later conception dates.Body mass was the second in importance,with heavier females conceiving earlier than lighter ones.Almost equally important was the spring real bioclimatic index,a measure of plant productivity,causing later conception dates in the least productive springs(drier and hotter).Another climatic component,the end of summer drought,showed that the sooner the autumn arrives(greater rainfalls and cooler temperatures)the earlier the conception dates.Interestingly,age class was found to be a minor factor in determining conception date.Only older females(≥10 years old)conceived significantly later,suggesting reproductive senescence.This study highlights not only the importance of population and individual traits but also the influence of climatic parameters on the deer reproductive cycle in Mediterranean environments,giving valuable insight into how reproductive phenology may respond to seasonality and global climate changes.

Competitor densities,habitat,and weather:effects on interspecific interactions between wild deer species

There is a growing interest on the potential interplay between weather,habitat,and interspecific competition on population dynamics of wild herbivores.Favorable environmental conditions may buffer the negative effects of competition;conversely,competition may be expected to be stronger under harsh environmental conditions.We investigated relationships between competitor abundance,weather,and habitat cover on density and local distribution of a medium-sized herbivore,the roe deer Capreolus capreolus,as well as its spatial overlap with fallow deer Dama dama in a Mediterranean protected area.Over 11 years(2007–2017),roe deer density was not affected by spring–summer rainfall in the previous year and decreased with increasing density of fallow deer in the previous year.Hence,over the considered temporal scale,results supported a major role of competition over weather in influencing population trends of roe deer.At a finer spatial scale,roe deer occupancy was negatively affected by local abundance of fallow deer,especially in“poorer”habitats.We found a slight support for a positive effect of fallow deer density on interspecific spatial overlap.Moreover,fine-scale spatial overlap between deer species increased with decreasing rainfall in spring–summer.Fallow deer were introduced to our study area in historical times and their role as superior competitors over roe deer has been found also in other study areas.We suggest a potential role of harsh weather conditions during the growing season of vegetation(i.e.scarce rainfall)in triggering the potential for ecological overlap,emphasizing the negative effects of interspecific competition.

Joint effects of weather and interspecific competition on foraging behavior and survival of a mountain herbivore

Weather variations have the potential to in fluence species interactions, although effects on competitive interactions between species are poorly known. Both weather and competition can influence foraging behavior and survival of herbivores during nursing/weaning, a critical period in the herbivore life cycle. We evaluated the joint effects of weather and competition with red deer Cervus elaphus on the foraging behavior of adult female Apen nine chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica ornata in summer, and on winter survival of chamois kids. High temperature and low rainfall during the growing seas on of vegetation had negative effects on bite rate. Effects of weather were greater in forb patches, including cold-adapted, nutritious plants of key importanee to chamois, than in graminoid ones. Our results confirm previous indications of a negative effect of competition on bite rate of female chamois and on kid survival. Furthermore, harsh weather conditions and competition with deer had additive, negative roles on foraging behavior and survival of chamois. Growing temperatures are expected to influence distribution, growth, and/or nutritional quality of plants;competition would reduce pasture quality and food availability through resource depletion. Both factors would limit food/energy intake rates during summer, reducing survival of the youngest cohorts in winter. We suggest that interspecific competition can be an important additive factor to the effects of weather changes on behavior and demography.

The onset in spring and the end in autumn of the thermal and vegetative growing season affect calving time and reproductive success in reindeer

A developing trophic mismatch between the peak of energy demands by reproducing animals and the peak of forage availability has caused many species'reproductive success to decrease.The match-mismatch hypothesis(MMH)is an appealing concept that can be used to assess such fitness consequences.However,concerns have been raised on applying the MMH on capital breeders such as reindeer because the reliance on maternal capita rather than dietary income may mitigate negative effects of changing phenologies.Using a long-term dataset of reindeer calving dates recorded since 1970 in a semidomesticated reindeer population in Finnish Lapland and proxies of plant phenology;we tested the main hypothesis that the time lag between calving date and the plant phenology in autumn when females store nutrient reserves to finance reproduction would lead to consequences on reproductive success,as the time lag with spring conditions would.As predicted,the reproductive success of females of the Kutuharju reindeer population was affected by both the onset of spring green-up and vegetative senescence in autumn as calves were born heavier and with a higher first-summer survival when the onset of the vegetation growth was earlier and the end of the thermal growing season the previous year was earlier as well.Our results demonstrated that longer plant growing seasons might be detrimental to reindeer's reproductive success if a later end is accompanied by a reduced abundance of mushrooms.

Survival is negatively associated with glucocorticoids in a wild ungulate neonate

It is unknown how ungulate physiological responses to environmental perturbation influence overall population demographics.Moreover,neonatal physiological responses remain poorly studied despite the importance of neonatal survival to population growth.Glucocorticoid(GC)hormones potentially facilitate critical physiological and behavioral responses to environmental perturbations.However,elevated GC concentrations over time may compromise body condition and indirectly reduce survival.We evaluated baseline salivary cortisol(CORT;a primary GC in mammals)concentrations in 19 wild neonatal white-tailed deer(Odocoileus virginianus)in a northern(NS)and southern(SS)area in Pennsylvania.After ranking survival models consisting of variables hypothesized to influence neonate survival(i.e.weight,sex),the probability of neonate survival was best explained by CORT concentrations,where elevated CORT concentrations were associated with reduced survival probability to 12 weeks of age.Cortisol concentrations were greater in the SS where predation rates and predator densities were lower.As the first evaluation of baseline CORT concentrations in an ungulate neonate to our knowledge,this is also the first study to demonstrate CORT concentrations are negatively associated with ungulate survival at any life stage.Glucocorticoid hormones could provide a framework in which to better understand susceptibility to mortality in neonatal white-tailed deer.

The role of weather and density dependence on population dynamics of Alpine-dwelling red deer

The dynamics of red deer Cervus elaphus populations has been investigated across different environmental conditions,with the notable exception of the European Alps.Although the population dynamics of mountain-dwelling ungulates is typically influenced by the interaction between winter severity and density,the increase of temperatures and the reduction of snowpack occurring on the Alps since the 1980s may be expected to alter this pattern,especially in populations dwelling at medium-low elevations.Taking advantage of a 29-year time series of spring count data,we explored the role of weather stochasticity and density dependence on growth rate and vital rates(mortality and weaning success),and the density-dependent variation in body mass in a red deer population of the Italian Alps.The interaction between increasing values of density and snow depth exerted negative and positive effects on growth and mortality rates,respectively,while weaning success was negatively affected by increasing values of density,female-biased sex ratio and snow depth.Body mass of males and females of different age classes declined as population size increased.Our data support the role of winter severity and density dependence as key components of red deer population dynamics,and provide insight into the species’ecology on the European Alps.Despite the recent decline of snowpack on the Alpine Region,the negative impacts of winter severity and population abundance on growth rrate(possibly mediated by the density-dependent decline in body mass)confirms the importance of overwinter mortality in affecting the population dynamics of Alpine-dwelling red deer.

The evidence of fossil carbon isotopes of the climatic event at the beginning of Quaternary

Tooth enamel of mammalian fossils can efficiently preserve the original carbon isotopic composition when they lived. The ungulate fossils, especially equids in the early Early Pleistocene Bajiazui fauna from Qingyang, Gansu are studied. According to the enriched relation of carbon isotopes between mammalian tooth enamel and grass diets, the fractions of C3 and C4 plants in this region at that time are reconstructed, which indicates that C3 grass occupied a dominant position. Because C3 grass adapts itself to cold and damp climates, our analytic results show that the time of the Bajiazui fauna was in a critical state between a glacial stage beginning and a summer monsoon retreat, and it was a reflection to the turning cold event of the global climate at the beginning of the Quaternary.