A method to interpret fracture aperture of rock slope using adaptive shape and unmanned aerial vehicle multi-angle nap-of-the-object photogrammetry

The aperture of natural rock fractures significantly affects the deformation and strength properties of rock masses,as well as the hydrodynamic properties of fractured rock masses.The conventional measurement methods are inadequate for collecting data on high-steep rock slopes in complex mountainous regions.This study establishes a high-resolution three-dimensional model of a rock slope using unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV)multi-angle nap-of-the-object photogrammetry to obtain edge feature points of fractures.Fracture opening morphology is characterized using coordinate projection and transformation.Fracture central axis is determined using vertical measuring lines,allowing for the interpretation of aperture of adaptive fracture shape.The feasibility and reliability of the new method are verified at a construction site of a railway in southeast Tibet,China.The study shows that the fracture aperture has a significant interval effect and size effect.The optimal sampling length for fractures is approximately 0.5e1 m,and the optimal aperture interpretation results can be achieved when the measuring line spacing is 1%of the sampling length.Tensile fractures in the study area generally have larger apertures than shear fractures,and their tendency to increase with slope height is also greater than that of shear fractures.The aperture of tensile fractures is generally positively correlated with their trace length,while the correlation between the aperture of shear fractures and their trace length appears to be weak.Fractures of different orientations exhibit certain differences in their distribution of aperture,but generally follow the forms of normal,log-normal,and gamma distributions.This study provides essential data support for rock and slope stability evaluation,which is of significant practical importance.

Estimating Key Phenological Dates of Multiple Rice Accessions Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Plant Height Dynamics for Breeding

Efficient and high-quality estimation of key phenological dates in rice is of great significance in breeding work. Plant height(PH) dynamics are valuable for estimating phenological dates. However, research on estimating the key phenological dates of multiple rice accessions based on PH dynamics has been limited. In 2022, field traits were collected using unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV)-based images across 435 plots, including 364 rice varieties. PH, dates of initial heading(IH) and full heading(FH), and panicle initiation(PI), and growth period after transplanting(GPAT) were collected during the rice growth stage. PHs were extracted using a digital surface model(DSM) and fitted using Fourier and logistic models. Machine learning algorithms, including multiple linear regression, random forest(RF), support vector regression, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, and elastic net regression, were employed to estimate phenological dates. Results indicated that the optimal percentile of the DSM for extracting rice PH was the 95th(R^(2) = 0.934, RMSE = 0.056 m). The Fourier model provided a better fit for PH dynamics compared with the logistic models. Additionally, curve features(CF) and GPAT were significantly associated with PI, IH, and FH. The combination of CF and GPAT outperformed the use of CF alone, with RF demonstrating the best performance among the algorithms. Specifically, the combination of CF extracted from the logistic models, GPAT, and RF yielded the best performance for estimating PI(R^(2) = 0.834, RMSE = 4.344 d), IH(R^(2) = 0.877, RMSE = 2.721 d), and FH(R^(2) = 0.883, RMSE = 2.694 d). Overall, UAV-based rice PH dynamics combined with machine learning effectively estimated the key phenological dates of multiple rice accessions, providing a novel approach for investigating key phenological dates in breeding work.

Guaranteed Cost Attitude Tracking Control for Uncertain Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Under Safety Constraints

In this paper,guaranteed cost attitude tracking con-trol for uncertain quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle(QUAV)under safety constraints is studied.First,an augmented system is constructed by the tracking error system and reference system.This transformation aims to convert the tracking control prob-lem into a stabilization control problem.Then,control barrier function and disturbance attenuation function are designed to characterize the violations of safety constraints and tolerance of uncertain disturbances,and they are incorporated into the reward function as penalty items.Based on the modified reward function,the problem is simplified as the optimal regulation problem of the nominal augmented system,and a new Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman equation is developed.Finally,critic-only rein-forcement learning algorithm with a concurrent learning tech-nique is employed to solve the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman equa-tion and obtain the optimal controller.The proposed algorithm can not only ensure the reward function within an upper bound in the presence of uncertain disturbances,but also enforce safety constraints.The performance of the algorithm is evaluated by the numerical simulation.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Inspection Routing and Scheduling for Engineering Management

Technological advancements in unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)have revolutionized various industries,enabling the widespread adoption of UAV-based solutions.In engineering management,UAV-based inspection has emerged as a highly efficient method for identifying hidden risks in high-risk construction environments,surpassing traditional inspection techniques.Building on this foundation,this paper delves into the optimization of UAV inspection routing and scheduling,addressing the complexity introduced by factors such as no-fly zones,monitoring-interval time windows,and multiple monitoring rounds.To tackle this challenging problem,we propose a mixed-integer linear programming(MILP)model that optimizes inspection task assignments,monitoring sequence schedules,and charging decisions.The comprehensive consideration of these factors differentiates our problem from conventional vehicle routing problem(VRP),leading to a mathematically intractable model for commercial solvers in the case of large-scale instances.To overcome this limitation,we design a tailored variable neighborhood search(VNS)metaheuristic,customizing the algorithm to efficiently solve our model.Extensive numerical experiments are conducted to validate the efficacy of our proposed algorithm,demonstrating its scalability for both large-scale and real-scale instances.Sensitivity experiments and a case study based on an actual engineering project are also conducted,providing valuable insights for engineering managers to enhance inspection work efficiency.

Average Secrecy Capacity of the Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface-Assisted Integrated Satellite Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Relay Networks

Integrated satellite unmanned aerial vehicle relay networks(ISUAVRNs)have become a prominent topic in recent years.This paper investigates the average secrecy capacity(ASC)for reconfigurable intelligent surface(RIS)-enabled ISUAVRNs.Especially,an eve is considered to intercept the legitimate information from the considered secrecy system.Besides,we get detailed expressions for the ASC of the regarded secrecy system with the aid of the reconfigurable intelligent.Furthermore,to gain insightful results of the major parameters on the ASC in high signalto-noise ratio regime,the approximate investigations are further gotten,which give an efficient method to value the secrecy analysis.At last,some representative computer results are obtained to prove the theoretical findings.

Underdetermined direction of arrival estimation with nonuniform linear motion sampling based on a small unmanned aerial vehicle platform

Uniform linear array(ULA)radars are widely used in the collision-avoidance radar systems of small unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs).In practice,a ULA's multi-target direction of arrival(DOA)estimation performance suffers from significant performance degradation owing to the limited number of physical elements.To improve the underdetermined DOA estimation performance of a ULA radar mounted on a small UAV platform,we propose a nonuniform linear motion sampling underdetermined DOA estimation method.Using the motion of the UAV platform,the echo signal is sampled at different positions.Then,according to the concept of difference co-array,a virtual ULA with multiple array elements and a large aperture is synthesized to increase the degrees of freedom(DOFs).Through position analysis of the original and motion arrays,we propose a nonuniform linear motion sampling method based on ULA for determining the optimal DOFs.Under the condition of no increase in the aperture of the physical array,the proposed method obtains a high DOF with fewer sampling runs and greatly improves the underdetermined DOA estimation performance of ULA.The results of numerical simulations conducted herein verify the superior performance of the proposed method.

Improved Yield Prediction of Ratoon Rice Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Multi-Temporal Feature Method

Pre-harvest yield prediction of ratoon rice is critical for guiding crop interventions in precision agriculture.However,the unique agronomic practice(i.e.,varied stubble height treatment)in rice ratooning could lead to inconsistent rice phenology,which had a significant impact on yield prediction of ratoon rice.Multi-temporal unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV)-based remote sensing can likely monitor ratoon rice productivity and reflect maximum yield potential across growing seasons for improving the yield prediction compared with previous methods.Thus,in this study,we explored the performance of combination of agronomic practice information(API)and single-phase,multi-spectral features[vegetation indices(VIs)and texture(Tex)features]in predicting ratoon rice yield,and developed a new UAV-based method to retrieve yield formation process by using multi-temporal features which were effective in improving yield forecasting accuracy of ratoon rice.The results showed that the integrated use of VIs,Tex and API(VIs&Tex+API)improved the accuracy of yield prediction than single-phase UAV imagery-based feature,with the panicle initiation stage being the best period for yield prediction(R^(2) as 0.732,RMSE as 0.406,RRMSE as 0.101).More importantly,compared with previous multi-temporal UAV-based methods,our proposed multi-temporal method(multi-temporal model VIs&Tex:R^(2) as 0.795,RMSE as 0.298,RRMSE as 0.072)can increase R^(2) by 0.020-0.111 and decrease RMSE by 0.020-0.080 in crop yield forecasting.This study provides an effective method for accurate pre-harvest yield prediction of ratoon rice in precision agriculture,which is of great significance to take timely means for ensuring ratoon rice production and food security.

Coati Optimization-Based Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Communication

With the flexible deployment and high mobility of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)in an open environment,they have generated con-siderable attention in military and civil applications intending to enable ubiquitous connectivity and foster agile communications.The difficulty stems from features other than mobile ad-hoc network(MANET),namely aerial mobility in three-dimensional space and often changing topology.In the UAV network,a single node serves as a forwarding,transmitting,and receiving node at the same time.Typically,the communication path is multi-hop,and routing significantly affects the network’s performance.A lot of effort should be invested in performance analysis for selecting the optimum routing system.With this motivation,this study modelled a new Coati Optimization Algorithm-based Energy-Efficient Routing Process for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Communication(COAER-UAVC)technique.The presented COAER-UAVC technique establishes effective routes for communication between the UAVs.It is primarily based on the coati characteristics in nature:if attacking and hunting iguanas and escaping from predators.Besides,the presented COAER-UAVC technique concentrates on the design of fitness functions to minimize energy utilization and communication delay.A varied group of simulations was performed to depict the optimum performance of the COAER-UAVC system.The experimental results verified that the COAER-UAVC technique had assured improved performance over other approaches.

Unmanned aerial vehicle based intelligent triage system in mass-casualty incidents using 5G and artificial intelligence

BACKGROUND:Rapid on-site triage is critical after mass-casualty incidents(MCIs)and other mass injury events.Unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)have been used in MCIs to search and rescue wounded individuals,but they mainly depend on the UAV operator’s experience.We used UAVs and artificial intelligence(AI)to provide a new technique for the triage of MCIs and more efficient solutions for emergency rescue.METHODS:This was a preliminary experimental study.We developed an intelligent triage system based on two AI algorithms,namely OpenPose and YOLO.Volunteers were recruited to simulate the MCI scene and triage,combined with UAV and Fifth Generation(5G)Mobile Communication Technology real-time transmission technique,to achieve triage in the simulated MCI scene.RESULTS:Seven postures were designed and recognized to achieve brief but meaningful triage in MCIs.Eight volunteers participated in the MCI simulation scenario.The results of simulation scenarios showed that the proposed method was feasible in tasks of triage for MCIs.CONCLUSION:The proposed technique may provide an alternative technique for the triage of MCIs and is an innovative method in emergency rescue.

Received Power Based Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) Jamming Detection and Nodes Classification Using Machine Learning

This paper presents a machine-learning method for detecting jamming UAVs and classifying nodes during jamming attacks onWireless Sensor Networks(WSNs).Jamming is a type of Denial of Service(DoS)attack and intentional interference where a malicious node transmits a high-power signal to increase noise on the receiver side to disrupt the communication channel and reduce performance significantly.To defend and prevent such attacks,the first step is to detect them.The current detection approaches use centralized techniques to detect jamming,where each node collects information and forwards it to the base station.As a result,overhead and communication costs increased.In this work,we present a jamming attack and classify nodes into different categories based on their location to the jammer by employing a single node observer.As a result,we introduced a machine learning model that uses distance ratios and power received as features to detect such attacks.Furthermore,we considered several types of jammers transmitting at different power levels to evaluate the proposed metrics using MATLAB.With a detection accuracy of 99.7%for the k-nearest neighbors(KNN)algorithm and average testing accuracy of 99.9%,the presented solution is capable of efficiently and accurately detecting jamming attacks in wireless sensor networks.

Secrecy Outage Probability for Two-Way Integrated Satellite Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Relay Networks with Hardware Impairments

In this paper,we investigate the secrecy outage performance for the two-way integrated satellite unmanned aerial vehicle relay networks with hardware impairments.Particularly,the closed-form expression for the secrecy outage probability is obtained.Moreover,to get more information on the secrecy outage probability in a high signalto-noise regime,the asymptotic analysis along with the secrecy diversity order and secrecy coding gain for the secrecy outage probability are also further obtained,which presents a fast method to evaluate the impact of system parameters and hardware impairments on the considered network.Finally,Monte Carlo simulation results are provided to show the efficiency of the theoretical analysis.

Optimization of Resource Allocation in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Based on Swarm Intelligence Algorithms

Due to their adaptability,Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)play an essential role in the Internet of Things(IoT).Using wireless power transfer(WPT)techniques,an UAV can be supplied with energy while in flight,thereby extending the lifetime of this energy-constrained device.This paper investigates the optimization of resource allocation in light of the fact that power transfer and data transmission cannot be performed simultaneously.In this paper,we propose an optimization strategy for the resource allocation of UAVs in sensor communication networks.It is a practical solution to the problem of marine sensor networks that are located far from shore and have limited power.A corresponding system model is summarized based on the scenario and existing theoretical works.The minimum throughputmaximizing object is then formulated as an optimization problem.As swarm intelligence algorithms are utilized effectively in numerous fields,this paper chose to solve the formed optimization problem using the Harris Hawks Optimization and Whale Optimization Algorithms.This paper introduces a method for translating multi-decisions into a row vector in order to adapt swarm intelligence algorithms to the problem,as joint time and energy optimization have two sets of variables.The proposed method performs well in terms of stability and duration.Finally,performance is evaluated through numerical experiments.Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method performs admirably in the given scenario.

Toward Optimal Periodic Crowd Tracking via Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Crowd management and analysis(CMA)systems have gained a lot of interest in the vulgarization of unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)use.Crowd tracking using UAVs is among the most important services provided by a CMA.In this paper,we studied the periodic crowd-tracking(PCT)problem.It consists in usingUAVs to follow-up crowds,during the life-cycle of an open crowded area(OCA).Two criteria were considered for this purpose.The first is related to the CMA initial investment,while the second is to guarantee the quality of service(QoS).The existing works focus on very specified assumptions that are highly committed to CMAs applications context.This study outlined a new binary linear programming(BLP)model to optimally solve the PCT motivated by a real-world application study taking into consideration the high level of abstraction.To closely approach different real-world contexts,we carefully defined and investigated a set of parameters related to the OCA characteristics,behaviors,and theCMAinitial infrastructure investment(e.g.,UAVs,charging stations(CSs)).In order to periodically update theUAVs/crowds andUAVs/CSs assignments,the proposed BLP was integrated into a linear algorithm called PCTs solver.Our main objective was to study the PCT problem fromboth theoretical and numerical viewpoints.To prove the PCTs solver effectiveness,we generated a diversified set of PCTs instances with different scenarios for simulation purposes.The empirical results analysis enabled us to validate the BLPmodel and the PCTs solver,and to point out a set of new challenges for future research directions.

Computational Intelligence Driven Secure Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Image Classification in Smart City Environment

Computational intelligence(CI)is a group of nature-simulated computationalmodels and processes for addressing difficult real-life problems.The CI is useful in the UAV domain as it produces efficient,precise,and rapid solutions.Besides,unmanned aerial vehicles(UAV)developed a hot research topic in the smart city environment.Despite the benefits of UAVs,security remains a major challenging issue.In addition,deep learning(DL)enabled image classification is useful for several applications such as land cover classification,smart buildings,etc.This paper proposes novel meta-heuristics with a deep learning-driven secure UAV image classification(MDLS-UAVIC)model in a smart city environment.Themajor purpose of the MDLS-UAVIC algorithm is to securely encrypt the images and classify them into distinct class labels.The proposedMDLS-UAVIC model follows a two-stage process:encryption and image classification.The encryption technique for image encryption effectively encrypts the UAV images.Next,the image classification process involves anXception-based deep convolutional neural network for the feature extraction process.Finally,shuffled shepherd optimization(SSO)with a recurrent neural network(RNN)model is applied for UAV image classification,showing the novelty of the work.The experimental validation of the MDLS-UAVIC approach is tested utilizing a benchmark dataset,and the outcomes are examined in various measures.It achieved a high accuracy of 98%.

Optimal Deep Learning Enabled Communication System for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Recently,unmanned aerial vehicles(UAV)or drones are widely employed for several application areas such as surveillance,disaster management,etc.Since UAVs are limited to energy,efficient coordination between them becomes essential to optimally utilize the resources and effective communication among them and base station(BS).Therefore,clustering can be employed as an effective way of accomplishing smart communication systems among multiple UAVs.In this aspect,this paper presents a group teaching optimization algorithm with deep learning enabled smart communication system(GTOADL-SCS)technique for UAV networks.The proposed GTOADL-SCS model encompasses a two stage process namely clustering and classification.At the initial stage,the GTOADL-SCS model includes a GTOA based clustering scheme to elect cluster heads(CHs)and organize clusters.Besides,the GTOADL-SCS model develops a fitness function containing three input parameters as residual energy of UAVs,average neighoring distance,and UAV degree.For classification process,the GTOADLSCS model applies pre-trained densely connected network(DenseNet201)feature extractor with gated recurrent unit(GRU)classifier.For ensuring the enhanced performance of the GTOADL-SCS model,a widespread simulation analysis is performed and the comparative study reported the significant outcomes over the existing approaches with maximum packet delivery ratio(PDR)of 92.60%.

3D Path Optimisation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Using Q Learning-Controlled GWO-AOA

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)or drones introduced for military applications are gaining popularity in several other fields as well such as security and surveillance,due to their ability to perform repetitive and tedious tasks in hazardous environments.Their increased demand created the requirement for enabling the UAVs to traverse independently through the Three Dimensional(3D)flight environment consisting of various obstacles which have been efficiently addressed by metaheuristics in past literature.However,not a single optimization algorithms can solve all kind of optimization problem effectively.Therefore,there is dire need to integrate metaheuristic for general acceptability.To address this issue,in this paper,a novel reinforcement learning controlled Grey Wolf Optimisation-Archimedes Optimisation Algorithm(QGA)has been exhaustively introduced and exhaustively validated firstly on 22 benchmark functions and then,utilized to obtain the optimum flyable path without collision for UAVs in three dimensional environment.The performance of the developed QGA has been compared against the various metaheuristics.The simulation experimental results reveal that the QGA algorithm acquire a feasible and effective flyable path more efficiently in complicated environment.

Rice Bacterial Infection Detection Using Ensemble Technique on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Images

Establishing a system for measuring plant health and bacterial infection is critical in agriculture.Previously,the farmers themselves,who observed them with their eyes and relied on their experience in analysis,which could have been incorrect.Plant inspection can determine which plants reflect the quantity of green light and near-infrared using infrared light,both visible and eye using a drone.The goal of this study was to create algorithms for assessing bacterial infections in rice using images from unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)with an ensemble classification technique.Convolution neural networks in unmanned aerial vehi-cles image were used.To convey this interest,the rice’s health and bacterial infec-tion inside the photo were detected.The project entailed using pictures to identify bacterial illnesses in rice.The shape and distinct characteristics of each infection were observed.Rice symptoms were defined using machine learning and image processing techniques.Two steps of a convolution neural network based on an image from a UAV were used in this study to determine whether this area will be affected by bacteria.The proposed algorithms can be utilized to classify the types of rice deceases with an accuracy rate of 89.84 percent.

Submarine Hunter: Efficient and Secure Multi-Type Unmanned Vehicles

Utilizing artificial intelligence(AI)to protect smart coastal cities has become a novel vision for scientific and industrial institutions.One of these AI technologies is using efficient and secure multi-environment Unmanned Vehicles(UVs)for anti-submarine attacks.This study’s contribution is the early detection of a submarine assault employing hybrid environment UVs that are controlled using swarm optimization and secure the information in between UVs using a decentralized cybersecurity strategy.The Dragonfly Algorithm is used for the orientation and clustering of the UVs in the optimization approach,and the Re-fragmentation strategy is used in the Network layer of the TCP/IP protocol as a cybersecurity solution.The research’s noteworthy findings demonstrate UVs’logistical capability to promptly detect the target and address the problem while securely keeping the drone’s geographical information.The results suggest that detecting the submarine early increases the likelihood of averting a collision.The dragonfly strategy of sensing the position of the submersible and aggregating around it demonstrates the reliability of swarm intelligence in increasing access efficiency.Securing communication between Unmanned Aerial Vehicles(UAVs)improves the level of secrecy necessary for the task.The swarm navigation is based on a peer-to-peer system,which allows each UAV to access information from its peers.This,in turn,helps the UAVs to determine the best route to take and to avoid collisions with other UAVs.The dragonfly strategy also increases the speed of the mission by minimizing the time spent finding the target.

Rotary unmanned aerial vehicles path planning in rough terrain based on multi-objective particle swarm optimization

This paper presents a path planning approach for rotary unmanned aerial vehicles(R-UAVs)in a known static rough terrain environment.This approach aims to find collision-free and feasible paths with minimum altitude,length and angle variable rate.First,a three-dimensional(3D)modeling method is proposed to reduce the computation burden of the dynamic models of R-UAVs.Considering the length,height and tuning angle of a path,the path planning of R-UAVs is described as a tri-objective optimization problem.Then,an improved multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm is developed.To render the algorithm more effective in dealing with this problem,a vibration function is introduced into the collided solutions to improve the algorithm efficiency.Meanwhile,the selection of the global best position is taken into account by the reference point method.Finally,the experimental environment is built with the help of the Google map and the 3D terrain generator World Machine.Experimental results under two different rough terrains from Guilin and Lanzhou of China demonstrate the capabilities of the proposed algorithm in finding Pareto optimal paths.

Research on Water-Exit and Take-off Process for Morphing Unmanned Submersible Aerial Vehicle

This paper presents a theoretic implementation method of Morphing Unmanned Submersible Aerial Vehicle （MUSAV）, which can both submerge in the water and fly in the air. Two different shapes are put forward so that the vehicle can suit both submergence and flight, considering the tremendous differences between hydrodynamic configuration and aerodynamic configuration of a vehicle. The transition of the two shapes can be achieved by using morphing technology. The water-to-air process, including water-exit, morphing, take-off and steady flight, is analyzed. The hydrodynamic and aerodynamic model of the vehicle exiting the water surface obliquely and then taking off into the air has been founded. The control strategy after morphing is analyzed and the control method is given. Numerical method is used to validate the motion model of the water-exit process. Results of simulations show the validity of the proposed model and the feasibility of MUSAV in theory.