Spatiotemporal Evolution of Urban Heat Islands and Optimization of Spatial Network Construction in the Central Urban Area of Fuzhou City, China

Although accelerated urbanization has led to economic prosperity,it has also resulted in urban heat island effects.Therefore,identifying methods of using limited urban spaces to alleviate heat islands has become an urgent issue.In this study,we assessed the spatiotemporal evolution of urban heat islands within the central urban area of Fuzhou City,China from 2010 to 2019.This assessment was based on a morphological spatial pattern analysis(MSPA)model and an urban thermal environment spatial network constructed us-ing the minimum cumulative resistance(MCR)model.Optimization measures for the spatial network were proposed to provide a theor-etical basis for alleviating urban heat islands.The results show that the heat island area within the study area gradually increased while that of urban cold island area gradually decreased.The core area was the largest of the urban heat island patch landscape elements with a significant impact on other landscape elements,and represented an important factor underlying urban heat island network stability.The thermal environment network revealed a total of 197 thermal environment corridors and 93 heat island sources.These locations were then optimized according to the current land use,which maximized the potential of 1599.83 ha.Optimization based on current land use led to an increase in climate resilience,with effective measures showing reduction in thermal environment spatial network structure and function,contributing to the mitigation of urban heat island.These findings support the use of current land use patterns during urban heat island mitigation measure planning,thus providing an important reference basis for alleviating urban heat island effects.

Spatio-temporal Evolution Characteristics and Driving Forces of Winter Urban Heat Island:A Case Study of Rapid Urbanization Area of Fuzhou City,China

Under the influence of anthropogenic and climate change,the problems caused by urban heat island(UHI)has become increasingly prominent.In order to promote urban sustainable development and improve the quality of human settlements,it is significant for exploring the evolution characteristics of urban thermal environment and analyzing its driving forces.Taking the Landsat series images as the basic data sources,the winter land surface temperature(LST)of the rapid urbanization area of Fuzhou City in China was quantitatively retrieved from 2001 to 2021.Combing comprehensively the standard deviation ellipse model,profile analysis and GeoDetector model,the spatio-temporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of the winter urban thermal environment were systematically analyzed.The results showed that the winter LST presented an increasing trend in the study area during 2001–2021,and the winter LST of the central urban regions was significantly higher than the suburbs.There was a strong UHI effect from 2001 to 2021with an expansion trend from the central urban regions to the suburbs and coastal areas in space scale.The LST of green lands and wetlands are significantly lower than croplands,artificial surface and unvegetated lands.Vegetation and water bodies had a significant mitigation effect on UHI,especially in the micro-scale.The winter UHI had been jointly driven by the underlying surface and socio-economic factors in a nonlinear or two-factor interactive enhancement mode,and socio-economic factors had played a leading role.This research could provide data support and decision-making references for rationally planning urban layout and promoting sustainable urban development.

Factors Influencing the Spatial Variability of Air Temperature Urban Heat Island Intensity in Chinese Cities

Few studies have investigated the spatial patterns of the air temperature urban heat island(AUHI)and its controlling factors.In this study,the data generated by an urban climate model were used to investigate the spatial variations of the AUHI across China and the underlying climate and ecological drivers.A total of 355 urban clusters were used.We performed an attribution analysis of the AUHI to elucidate the mechanisms underlying its formation.The results show that the midday AUHI is negatively correlated with climate wetness(humid:0.34 K;semi-humid:0.50 K;semi-arid:0.73 K).The annual mean midnight AUHI does not show discernible spatial patterns,but is generally stronger than the midday AUHI.The urban–rural difference in convection efficiency is the largest contributor to the midday AUHI in the humid(0.32±0.09 K)and the semi-arid(0.36±0.11 K)climate zones.The release of anthropogenic heat from urban land is the dominant contributor to the midnight AUHI in all three climate zones.The rural vegetation density is the most important driver of the daytime and nighttime AUHI spatial variations.A spatial covariance analysis revealed that this vegetation influence is manifested mainly through its regulation of heat storage in rural land.

Mitigating Urban Heat Island Effects: A Review of Innovative Pavement Technologies and Integrated Solutions

In this review paper,we present a thorough investigation into the role of pavement technologies in advancing urban sustainability.Our analysis traverses the historical evolution of these technologies,meticulously evaluating their socio-economic and environmental impacts,with a particular emphasis on their role in mitigating the urban heat island effect.The evaluation of pavement types and variables influencing pavement performance to be used in the multi-criteria decision-making(MCDM)framework to choose the optimal pavement application are at the heart of our research.Which serves to assess a spectrum of pavement options,revealing insights into the most effective and sustainable practices.By highlighting both the existing challenges and potential innovative solutions within thefield,this paper aims to offer a directional compass for future urban planning and infrastructural advancements.This review not only synthesizes the current state of knowledge but also aims to chart a course for future exploration,emphasizing the critical need for innovative and environmentally sensitive pavement tech-nologies in the creation of resilient and sustainable urban environments.

Geospatial Analysis of Urban Heat Island Effects and Tree Equity

In recent decades, Urban Heat Island Effects have become more pronounced and more widely examined. Despite great technological advances, our current societies still experience great spatial disparity in urban forest access. Urban Heat Island Effects are measurable phenomenon that are being experienced by the world’s most urbanized areas, including increased summer high temperatures and lower evapotranspiration from having impervious surfaces instead of vegetation and trees. Tree canopy cover is our natural mitigation tool that absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis, protects humans from incoming radiation, and releases cooling moisture into the air. Unfortunately, urban areas typically have low levels of vegetation. Vulnerable urban communities are lower-income areas of inner cities with less access to heat protection like air conditioners. This study uses mean evapotranspiration levels to assess the variability of urban heat island effects across the state of Tennessee. Results show that increased developed land surface cover in Tennessee creates measurable changes in atmospheric evapotranspiration. As a result, the mean evapotranspiration levels in areas with less tree vegetation are significantly lower than the surrounding forested areas. Central areas of urban cities in Tennessee had lower mean evapotranspiration recordings than surrounding areas with less development. This work demonstrates the need for increased tree canopy coverage.

Spatial and temporal analysis of urban heat island effect over Tiruchirappalli city using geospatial techniques

Alterations made to the natural ground surface and the anthropogenic activity elevate the surface and air temperature in the urban areas compared with the surrounding rural areas,known as urban heat island effect.Thermal remote sensors measure the radiation emitted by ground objects,which can be used to estimate the land surface temperature and are beneficial for studying urban heat island effects.The present study investigates the spatial and temporal variations in the effects of urban heat island over Tiruchirappalli city in India during the summer and winter seasons.The study also identifies hot spots and cold spots within the study area.In this study,a significant land surface temperature difference was observed between the urban and rural areas,predominantly at night,indicating the presence of urban heat island at night.These diurnal land surface temperature fluctuations are also detected seasonally,with a relatively higher temperature intensity during the summer.The trend line analysis shows that the mean land surface temperature of the study area is increasing at a rate of 0.166 K/decade with p less than 0.01.By using the spatial autocorrelation method with the urban heat island index as the key parameter,hot spots with a 99 percent confidence level and a 95 percent confidence level were found within the urban area.A hot spot with 95 and 90 percent confidence level was identified outside the urban area.This spike in temperature for a particular region in the rural area is due to industry and the associated built-up area.The study also identified cold spots with a 90 percent confidence level within the rural area.However,cold spots with a 95 and 99 percent confidence level were not identified within the study area.

Variations in Surface Urban Heat Island and Urban Cool Island Intensity:A Review Across Major Climate Zones

The climate has an impact on the urban thermal environment,and the magnitude of the surface urban heat island(SUHI)and urban cool island(UCI)vary across the world’s climatic zones.This literature review investigated:1)the variations in the SUHI and UCI intensity under different climatic backgrounds,and 2)the effect of vegetation types,landscape composition,urban configuration,and water bodies on the SUHI.The SUHI had a higher intensity in tropical(Af(tropical rainy climate,Köppen climate classification),Am(tropical monsoon climate),subtropical(Cfa,subtropical humid climate),and humid continental(Dwa,semi-humid and semi-arid monsoon climate)climate zones.The magnitude of the UCI was low compared to the SUHI across the climate zones.The cool and dry Mediterranean(Cfb,temperate marine climate;Csb,temperate mediterranean climate;Cfa)and tropical climate(Af)areas had a higher cooling intensity.For cities with a desert climate(BWh,tropical desert climate),a reverse pattern was found.The difference in the SUHI in the night-time was greater than in the daytime for most cities across the climate zones.The extent of green space cooling was related to city size,the adjacent impervious surface,and the local climate.Additionally,the composition of urban landscape elements was more significant than their configuration for sustaining the urban thermal environment.Finally,we identified future research gaps for possible solutions in the context of sustainable urbanization in different climate zones.

Impact of the Urban Heat Island Effect on Ozone Pollution in Chengdu City,China

With the advancement of urbanization,the urban heat island effect and ozone pollution have become hot issues in urban research.The urban heat island effect can impact ozone conversion,but its mechanism of action is unclear.In this study,the effects of the urban heat island effect on ozone concentration in Chengdu City,China,were investigated by comparing the ozone concentration under different heat island levels with ozone data from March 2020 to February 2021 and the temperature and wind field data of ERA5-Land during the same period.The results showed that:1)regarding the distribution characteristics,the ozone concentration in Chengdu presented a‘high in summer and low in winter’distribution.The ozone concentration in summer(189.54µg/m^(3))was nearly twice that in winter(91.99µg/m^(3)),and the ozone diurnal variation presented a‘single peak and single valley’distribution,with a peak at 16:00.2)For the characteristics of the heat island effect,the heat island intensity in Chengdu was obviously higher in spring than in other seasons,and the diurnal variation showed a‘single peak and single valley’distribution,with the peak and trough values appearing at 9:00 and 17:00,respectively.Spatially,the eastern part of Chengdu was a heat island,while the western and northwestern parts were mostly cold island.3)The correlation analysis between heat island intensity and ozone concentration showed a significant positive correlation but with a 7–8 h time lag.Ambient air temperature was not the main factor affecting ozone concentration.The heat island effect impacts the ozone concentration in two ways:changing the local heat budget to promote ozone generation and forming local urban wind,which promotes ozone diffusion or accumulation and forms different areas of low and high ozone values.

Exploring the spatiotemporal relationship between green infrastructure and urban heat island under multi‐source remote sensing imagery:A case study of Fuzhou City

Green Infrastructure(GI)has garnered increasing attention from various regions due to its potential to mitigate urban heat island(UHI),which has been exacerbated by global climate change.This study focuses on the central area of Fuzhou city,one of the“furnace”cities,and aims to explore the correlation between the GI pattern and land surface temperature(LST)in the spring and autumn seasons.The research adopts a multiscale approach,starting from the urban scale and using urban geographic spatial characteristics,multispectral remote sensing data,and morphological spatial pattern analysis(MSPA).Significant MSPA elements were tested and combined with LST to conduct a geographic weighted regression(GWR)experiment.The findings reveal that the UHI in the central area of Fuzhou city has a spatial characteristic of“high temperature in the middle and low temperature around,”which is coupled with a“central scattered and peripheral concentrated”distribution of GI.This suggests that remote sensing data can effectively be utilised for UHI inversion.Additionally,the study finds that the complexity of GI,whether from the perspective of the overall GI pattern or the classification study based on the proportion of the core area,has an impact on the alleviation of UHI in both seasons.In conclusion,this study underscores the importance of a reasonable layout of urban green infrastructure for mitigating UHI.

Surface Regional Heat(Cool) Island Effect and Its Diurnal Differences in Arid and Semiarid Resource-based Urban Agglomerations

With the rapid development of urban agglomerations in northwest arid and semiarid regions of China, the scope of the urban heat island(UHI) effect has gradually expanded and gradually connected, and has formed a regional heat island(RHI) with a larger range of impact to the regional environment. However, there are few studies on the heat island effect of urban agglomerations in arid and semiarid regions, so this paper selects the urban agglomeration of Hohhot, Baotou and Ordos(HBO) of Inner Mongolia, China as the study area. Based on the 8-day composite Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) surface temperature data(156scenes in all) and land use maps for 2005, 2010, and 2015, we analyze the spatiotemporal distributions of regional heat(cool) islands(RH(C)I) and the responses of surface temperatures to land-use changes in the diurnal and interannual surface cities. The results showed that: 1) from 2005 to 2015, urban areas showed the cold island effect during the day, with the area of the cold island showing a shrinking feature;at night, they showed the heat island effect, with the area of the heat island showing a first decrease and then an increase.2) From 2005 to 2015, the land development(unutilized land to building land) brings the greatest temperature increase(ΔT = 1.36°C)during the day, while the greatest temperature change at night corresponds to the conversion of cultivated land to building land(ΔT =0.78°C) exhibited the largest changes at night. From 2010 to 2015, the land development(grassland to building land) bring the greatest temperature increase(ΔT = 0.85°C) during the day, while the great temperature change at night corresponds to the conversion of water areas to building land(ΔT = 1.38°C) exhibited the largest changes at night. Exploring the spatial and temporal evolution of surface urban heat(cool) islands in urban agglomerations in arid and semiarid regions will help to understand the urbanization characteristics of urban agglomerations and provide a reference for the formulation of policies for the coordinated and healthy development of the region and co-governance of regional environmental problems.

Changing Characteristics of Urban Heat Island Effect in Weihai City

Based on the local climate zoning theory and the observation data of hourly temperature of 22 automatic weather stations from 2012 to 2021, K-means clustering algorithm was used to analyze the daily, monthly, seasonal, annual and spatial variation characteristics of urban heat island effect in Weihai City in the past 10 years. The results showed that in recent 10 years, the average urban heat island intensity was 1.24 ℃, showing a gradual weakening trend of -0.169 3 ℃/10 a;the summer average heat island intensity was 0.86 ℃, showing a gradual weakening trend of -0.047 5 ℃/10 a. The heat island intensity had obvious diurnal variation characteristics, that is, "it was weak in the day and strong at night". In terms of seasonal variation, heat island effect was the weakest in summer, stronger in spring and autumn, and the strongest in winter. The diurnal, seasonal and annual changes of heat island intensity showed a reverse trend to those of temperature. The high-value area of urban heat island was highly consistent with human residential activity areas and industrial and commercial intensive areas, and the extension trend of heat island intensity was the same as the direction of urban development and construction. The "cold island phenomenon" in some offshore areas was related to the geographical location, terrain and the southeast monsoon trend in summer. The adverse effects of urban heat island effect can be reduced by optimizing the types and distribution of vegetation communities, rationally planning and constructing urban water body, promoting green building materials and adjusting shape design, etc.

Monitoring Intra-annual Spatiotemporal Changes in Urban Heat Islands in 1449 Cities in China Based on Remote Sensing

This study aimed to accurately study the intra-annual spatiotemporal variation in the surface urban heat island intensities(SUHIIs) in 1449 cities in China.First, China was divided into five environmental regions.Then, the SUHIIs were accurately calculated based on the modified definitions of the city extents and their corresponding nearby rural areas.Finally, we explored the spatiotemporal variation of the mean, maximum, and minimum values, and ranges of SUHIIs from several aspects.The results showed that larger annual mean daytime SUHIIs occurred in hot-humid South China and cold-humid northeastern China, and the smallest occurred in arid and semiarid west China.The seasonal order of the SUHIIs was summer > spring > autumn > winter in all the temperate regions except west China.The SUHIIs were obviously larger during the rainy season than the dry season in the tropical region.Nevertheless, significant differences were not observed between the two seasons within the rainy or dry periods.During the daytime, the maximum SUHIIs mostly occurred in summer in each region, while the minimum occurred in winter.A few cold island phenomena existed during the nighttime.The maximum SUHIIs were generally significantly positively correlated with the minimum SUHIIs during the daytime, nighttime and all-day in all environmental regions throughout the year and the four seasons.Moreover, significant correlation scarcely existed between the daytime and nighttime ranges of the SUHIIs.In addition, the daytime SUHIIs were also insignificantly correlated with the nighttime SUHIIs in half of the cases.

Impact of Desert Urbanization on Urban Heat Islands Effect

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has undergone major urban transformation after the establishment of the country in 1971. One noticeable change is urban expansion in terms of massive infrastructure, including new residential areas, highways, airports, and sophisticated transportation systems. Major landscape changes and disturbances, such as urban development, are among the major contributors to global climate change. Urban areas can be 3.5°C - 4.5°C warmer than neighboring rural areas, a phenomenon known as urban heat islands (UHIs). As such, urban development in the UAE was expected to follow a similar pattern and to be a major contributor to the country’s impact on global climate change. Analyses of multi-temporal (1988-2017) land surface temperature (LST) data obtained from Landsat satellite datasets over a desert city in the UAE showed unexpected results. Urbanization of desert surfaces in the study area led to a decrease of 3°C - 5°C in the overall LST. This was attributed to the associated expansion of green spaces in the newly developed urban areas, the expansion of date plantations and perhaps a cooling in the previously desert surface. Therefore, the UHI effect was not well demonstrated in the studied desert surfaces converted to urban areas.

Contribution of Landsat TM Data for the Detection ofUrban Heat Islands Areas Case of Casablanca

Casablanca, main metropolis of Morocco concentrates more than 46% of the working population. She is considered as the most affected city by the increase of the temperature. We have therefore chosen to base our study on the city of Ca- sablanca. The main objective of this study is to estimate the ground temperature in order to evaluate the impact of the vegetation on cooling the ground temperature. In order to move to the achievement and to identify the formation of is- lands of warmth or coolness which occur in the urban municipalities of Casablanca, we have used the satellites images Landsat 5 TM. Graphical analysis based on studying the correlation was performed to quantify the strength of the link between the coolest urban surfaces and the green spaces. To achieve this, we used “mono-window” algorithm which re- quires knowledge of the atmospheric transmittance, the emissivity of soil and the effective temperature of the air. This study revealed a strong correlation between vegetation cover and cold areas (R2 = 0.911) and allowed us to determine graphically that there is a strong link between the urban ground temperature and the density of buildings.

Analysis on the Variation Characteristics of Temperature in Anqing City and Urban Heat Island Effect

[Objective] The aim was to analyse the variation characteristics of temperature in Anqing City and urban heat island effect.[Method] Based on the observation data of temperature from Anqing Station,other surrounding meteorological stations and local automatic meteorological stations in suburbs,the annual variation of temperature and regional consistency was analysed,then the abrupt change of annual average temperature was tested by Mann-Kendall test,finally the influences of urban heat island effect on temperature variation in Anqing Station were studied.[Result] Affected by station migration and urban construction,the annual average temperature increased significantly in Anqing Station from 1977 to 2009,and the rising was more prominent after the middle of the 1990s.Mann-Kendall test showed that the change of temperature in Anqing Station was obviously abrupt around 1993;because of the development of urbanization,average temperature in Anqing Station was 0.8 ℃ higher than that in suburbs,and the minimum temperature rose more remarkably.In addition,urban heat island effect was the strongest in spring,followed by summer and autumn,while it was the weakest in winter.[Conclusion] The effects of urbanization development on the temperature in Anqing City were understood through this research.

A review on the generation, determination and mitigation of Urban Heat Island

Urban Heat Island （UHI） is considered as one of the major problems in the 21st century posed to human beings as a result of urbanization and industrialization of human civilization. The large amount of heat generated from urban structures, as they consume and re-radiate solar radiations, and from the anthropogenic heat sources are the main causes of UHI. The two heat sources increase the temperatures of an urban area as compared to its surroundings, which is known as Urban Heat Island Intensity （UHII）. The problem is even worse in cities or metropolises with large population and extensive economic activities. The estimated three billion people living in the urban areas in the world are directly exposed to the problem, which will be increased significantly in the near future. Due to the severity of the problem, vast research effort has been dedicated and a wide range of literature is available for the subject. The literature available in this area includes the latest research approaches, concepts, methodologies, latest investigation tools and mitigation measures. This study was carded out to review and summarize this research area through an investigation of the most important feature of UHI. It was concluded that the heat re-radiated by the urban structures plays the most important role which should be investigated in details to study urban heating especially the UHI. It was also concluded that the future research should be focused on design and planning parameters for reducing the effects of urban heat island and ultimately living in a better environment.

Remote sensing of the urban heat island and its changes in Xiamen City of SE China

World-wide urbanization has significantly modified the landscape, which has important climatic implications across all scales due to the simultaneous removal of natural land cover and introduction of urban materials. This resulted in a phenomenon known as an urban heat island(UHI). A study on the UHI in Xiamen of China was carried out using remote sensing technology. Satellite thermal infrared images were used to determine surface radiant temperatures. Thermal remote sensing data were obtained from band 6 of two Landsat TM/ETM\++ images of 1989 and 2000 to observe the UHI changes over 11-year period. The thermal infrared bands were processed through several image enhancement technologies. This generated two 3-dimension-perspective images of Xiamen's urban heat island in 1989 and 2000, respectively, and revealed heat characteristics and spatial distribution features of the UHI. To find out the change of the UHI between 1989 and 2000, the two thermal images were first normalized and scaled to seven grades to reduce seasonal difference and then overlaid to produce a difference image by subtracting corresponding pixels. The difference image showed an evident development of the urban heat island in the 11 years. This change was due largely to the urban expansion with a consequent alteration in the ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux. To quantitatively compare UHI, an index called Urban-Heat-Island Ratio Index(URI) was created. It can reveal the intensity of the UHI within the urban area. The calculation of the index was based on the ratio of UHI area to urban area. The greater the index, the more intense the UHI was. The calculation of the index for the Xiamen City indicated that the ratio of UHI area to urban area in 2000 was less than that in 1989. High temperatures in several areas in 1989 were reduced or just disappeared, such as those in old downtown area and Gulangyu Island. For the potential mitigation of the UHI in Xiamen, a long-term heat island reduction strategy of planting shade trees and using light-colored, highly reflective roof and paving materials should be included in the plans of the city planers, environmental managers and other decision-makers to improve the overall urban environment in the future.

Urban Heat Island and Boundary Layer Structures under Hot Weather Synoptic Conditions:A Case Study of Suzhou City,China

A strong urban heat island （UHI） appeared in a hot weather episode in Suzhou City during the period from 25 July to 1 August 2007. This paper analyzes the urban heat island characteristics of Suzhou City under this hot weather episode. Both meteorological station observations and MODIS satellite observations show a strong urban heat island in this area. The maximum UHI intensity in this hot weather episode is 2.2℃, which is much greater than the summer average of 1.0℃ in this year and the 37–year （from 1970 to 2006） average of 0.35℃. The Weather Research and Forecasting （WRF） model simulation results demonstrate that the rapid urbanization processes in this area will enhance the UHI in intensity, horizontal distribution, and vertical extension. The UHI spatial distribution expands as the urban size increases. The vertical extension of UHI in the afternoon increases about 50 m higher under the year 2006 urban land cover than that under the 1986 urban land cover. The conversion from rural land use to urban land type also strengthens the local lake-land breeze circulations in this area and modifies the vertical wind speed field.

Influence of new town development on the urban heat island-The case of the Bundang area

Five new towns have been developed around the Seoul metropolitan area since 1996 However, these new towns generate lots of traffic and related problems in the areas including those new towns and Seoul as a result of increases in population and a lack of ecological-self-sufficiency. Currently, construction of another new town is under deliberation, and what should be a major consider is the notion that the new town be located within a wide, green zone. Many studies have revealed that green space can play an important role in improving urban eco-meteorological capability and air quality. In order to analyze the urban heat island which will be created by the new urban development, and to investigate the local thermal environment and its negative effects caused by a change of land use type and urbanization, Landsat TM images were used for extraction of urban surface temperature according to changes of land use over the last 15 years. These data are analyzed together with digital land use and topographic information. As a study result, it was found the urban heat island of the study area from 1985 to 1999 rapidly developed which showed a difference of mean temperature above +2 0 Before the Bundang new town construction the temperature of the residential area was the same as a forest, but during the new town construction in 1991 analysis revealed the creation of an urban heat island. The temperature of a forest whose size is over 50% of the investigation area was lowest, and thus the presence of a forest is believed to have a direct cooling effect on the urban environment and its surroundings. The mean temperature of the residential and commercial areas in the study was found to be +4 5 higher than the forest, and therefore this part of land use is believed to be the main factor causing the temperature increase of the urban heat island.

APPLICATION OF WRF/UCM IN THE SIMULATION OF A HEAT WAVE EVENT AND URBAN HEAT ISLAND AROUND GUANGZHOU

This paper evaluated the performance of a coupled modeling system,Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)/Urban Canopy Model(UCM),in the simulation of a heat wave event which occurred around Guangzhou during late June through early July,2004.Results from three experiments reveal that the UCM with new land data(hereafter referred to as E-UCM)reproduces the best 2-m temperature evolution and the smallest minimum absolute average error as compared with the other two experiments,the BPA-Bulk Parameterization Approach with new land data(E-BPA)and the UCM with original U.S. Geological Survey land data(E-NOU).The E-UCM is more useful in capturing the temporal and spatial distribution of the nighttime Urban Heat Island(UHI).Differences in surface energy balance between the urban and suburban areas show that low daytime albedo causes more absorption of solar radiation by urban areas.Due to the lack of vegetation which inhibits cooling by evapotranspiration,most of the incoming energy over urban areas is partitioned into sensible heat flux and therefore heats the surface and enhances the heat wave.During nighttime,the energy in the urban area is mainly from soil heat flux.Although some energy is partitioned as outgoing long wave radiation,most of the soil heat flux is partitioned into sensible heat flux due to the small latent heat flux at night.This leads to the development of nighttime UHI and the increase of the magnitude and duration of heat waves within the municipality.