Mapping and measuring urban-rural inequalities in accessibility to social infrastructures

Equal access to social infrastructures is a fundamental prerequisite for sustainable development,but has long been a great challenge worldwide.Previous studies have primarily focused on the accessibility to social infras-tructures in urban areas across various scales,with less attention to rural areas,where inequality can be more severe.Particularly,few have investigated the disparities of accessibility to social infrastructures between urban and rural areas.Here,using the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan urban agglomeration,China,as an example,we investigated the inequality of accessibility in both urban and rural areas,and further compared the urban-rural difference.Accessibility was measured by travel time of residents to infrastructures.We selected four types of social infrastructures including supermarkets,bus stops,primary schools,and health care,which were funda-mentally important to both urban and rural residents.We found large disparities in accessibility between urban and rural areas,ranging from 20 min to 2 h.Rural residents had to spend one to two more hours to bus stops than urban residents,and 20 min more to the other three types of infrastructures.Furthermore,accessibility to multiple infrastructures showed greater urban-rural differences.Rural residents in more than half of the towns had no access to any infrastructure within 15 min,while more than 60%of the urban residents could access to all infrastructures within 15 min.Our results revealed quantitative accessibility gap between urban and rural areas and underscored the necessity of social infrastructures planning to address such disparities.

中国家庭联合收入财富不平等测度研究

使用年金法构建同时包含收入和财富的一维指标,即联合收入财富,基于该指标全面测度中国经济不平等程度并进行分解。结果发现:与收入不平等相比,联合收入财富基尼系数提高了13.36个百分点,其中房屋是影响家庭经济不平等的最重要财富形式;联合收入财富不平等程度在各年龄分组、城乡和地区之间存在较大的异质性;联合收入财富不平等主要由收入和财富年金值的边际分布本身所导致,而两大边际分布之间的关系对总体不平等的影响相对较小。

公积金制度对住房财富不平等的影响效应分析——基于CHFS数据的实证研究

住房公积金制度对住房财富积累具有较强的中介效应,其再分配机制对住房财富水平有显著影响。为此,结合中国家庭金融调查数据,引入结构方程模型和不平等回归分解法,对其影响路径进行系统性研究发现:我国住房公积金制度对高收入和高社会地位群体的住房财富积累具有稳定的正向再分配效应,对住房财富不平等的贡献较高。按照公积金的代际支付转移及分配差异的负反馈循环机制,这种不平等远未达到其最大影响。未来通过政策调整和结构优化,在公积金制度公平性和财富分配方面还蕴含着巨大的改善空间。

房价对城镇居民消费不平等的影响研究

基于中国家庭追踪调查库(CFPS)2010—2018年数据,采用面板计量模型和中介效应模型,研究房价对城镇居民消费不平等的影响效应及作用机制。结果表明:房价会正向影响城镇居民消费不平等,运用工具变量法进行内生性检验以及其他稳健性检验后,以上结论稳健。机制检验结果表明,房价会通过家庭人均消费支出影响城镇居民消费不平等,房价对居住支出和教育文化娱乐支出的影响程度较大,进一步说明房价上升会通过影响消费结构加剧城镇居民消费不平等。异质性检验结果表明,相对于城镇中低收入、中低金融资产家庭而言,房价变动对城镇高收入、高金融资产家庭居民消费的影响更明显。为此,应稳定房价、合理引导住房支出和调整居民消费结构,以促进消费公平,缩小消费不平等。

居民财产分配差异测度研究——基于基尼系数群组和来源的二维分解方法

本文提出一个新的基尼系数二维分解方法,该方法可以同时进行基尼系数的按群组和按来源分解操作,从而避免了不平等的群组分解和来源分解因使用方法不同而难以融合的缺陷。基于此方法,本文使用CFPS数据测算了2012—2020年我国城乡居民财产分配差距,发现这一时期居民财产分配差距呈波动上升态势。其中,城乡内部特别是城镇内部居民持有住房资产的差异是这一时期财产分配不平等扩大的重要原因,但如果考虑扣除房贷后的净资产,则其对差距扩大贡献明显缩小;而城乡间差异不是导致居民总体财产差距扩大的原因,其中,土地资产在这一时期起到扩大城乡组间差距的效果,而住房资产及住房净资产起到缩小组间差距的作用。因此,十八大以来,农村居民住房条件和住房财产明显提高对于缓解城乡差异起到积极作用,但不可忽视的是,城乡间住房资产和住房条件的绝对差距仍然很大,缩小城乡间居民住房条件差距仍然任重道远。

创新与顶层财富不平等

本文从理论和实证两个方面探究创新与顶层财富不平等之间的关系。理论上,本文首先构建刻画顶层财富不平等的帕累托分布,其次在内生增长理论的框架下推导出创新对顶层财富不平等的影响。一方面,创新通过提高资本回报率增加了顶层财富份额;另一方面,创新的颠覆性效应对现有企业形成负面冲击,从而降低了顶层财富份额。实证上,本文使用双向固定效应模型对世界40个主要经济体的面板数据进行回归。结果发现,创新对顶层财富不平等具有显著负向影响。该负向效应存在异质性,人均GDP越高的国家,该负向影响越弱。研究进一步揭示了创新对顶层财富不平等的作用机制。本文的研究结果意味着创新可以成为缓解顶层财富不平等的有效工具,这一发现对政策制定者具有重要意义。

Does Chinese Environmental Policy Affect Income Inequality? Evidence from the Central Environmental Protection Inspection

This paper investigates the effect of environmental policy on income inequality.It focuses on the central environmental protection inspection led by the central government in China.Using a diference-in-diferences approach,it finds evidence that environmental regulation decreased the per capita income and enlarged the gap between urban and rural income while showing an insignificant effect on employment.Although the policy can reduce pollution levels and bring environmental benefits in aggregate,the findings of this study suggest that the regulations appear to have reduced the proportion of manufacturing industry and hindered general innovation and investment from entrepreneurs,which resulted in greater inequality.Rural residents suffered more from environmental regulation due to relatively high migration costs and their disadvantaged human resources on the aspects of health,education level,and skills.The local government's execution incentive can also play a key role in the effectiveness of environmental policy.Regions with lower GDP growth targets and younger government leaders were affected significantly with regard to the income growth of local residents and the urban-rural income gap.

长期护理保险对老年家庭财富不平等的影响

财富均衡发展是规范财富积累机制、实现共同富裕的重要内容。利用2011—2018年中国健康与养老追踪调查(CHARLS)数据,使用双重差分(DID)模型探究了长期护理保险对老年家庭财富不平等的影响及其作用机制。研究发现,在试点3~5年,长期护理保险显著降低了老年家庭财富不平等,其中对失能家庭的影响更大。随着财富不平等分位点的数值增大,长期护理保险对财富不平等的抑制作用降低,这表明长期护理保险可以有效缓解小额照护支出家庭的财富不平等,而对大额支出家庭财富不平等所起到的抑制作用较为有限。进一步机制分析发现,长期护理保险主要通过缩小家庭收入差距和缓解家庭流动性约束来降低财富不平等水平。

全球最低财富税发展脉络及中国应对措施

各国财政压力和财富不平等问题日益严重,引发国际上关于征收全球最低财富税的改革倡议。全球最低财富税是财富税的国际性拓展,是对全球顶级富豪征收固定税率的财富税。本文分析认为,全球最低财富税在有益于缓解财富不平等、财政压力等问题的同时,可能存在资本外流、效率损失等风险。对于中国而言,全球最低财富税既对中国现行的税收制度造成冲击,也为中国系统性调整、完善税收分配制度带来新的机遇。中国应当依托全球最低财富税,完善税收体制建设,开展财富税征收管理实践,探索财富税税基评估方法,加强税收征管数字化建设和国际合作,以及调整税收优惠政策。

Inequality and the Urban-rural Divide in China:Effects of Regressive Taxation

Using three comparable national representative household surveys for China in 1988, 1995 and 2002, the present paper reveals the regressivity and urban bias of China＇s direct tax and welfare system in this period It shows that a regressive taxation system and skewed allocation of subsidies increases the urban-rural income gap and enhances overall inequality. Modeling these relationships indicates that the relatively poorer rural population has a net tax liability, whereas those in the richer urban areas receive net subsidies. This pattern is common in China, although the extent of the bias varies. This skewed system of tax and welfare payments is a major cause of the persisting urban-rural income gap and contributes to the overall income inequality in China. The abolishment of the agriculture tax in 2006 has had a positive impact on rural people ＇s livelihoods.

共同富裕目标下居民资产配置动因与问题研究

我国居民可投资资金规模持续增加,养老、医疗压力下居民投资需求增强,数字金融的发展,促进了长尾客户的投资便利性。在共同富裕目标下,重新审视居民家庭资产配置十分必要。当前房产为主的配置结构不利于居民形成多元化资产收入,伴随的杠杆带来风险隐忧,不利于国内经济大循环和资源有效配置,并加大了财富不平等。建议丰富金融供给,发挥数字金融作用,构建与资本市场高度相关的财富管理体系,让民众充分分享经济增长成果;不断提高居民金融素养和数字素养,避免数字鸿沟,发挥金融向善的作用。

What Drove Housing Wealth Inequality in China?

Although China is experiencing a deterioration in wealth distribution where housing is playing a dominant role,this issue has received scant research attention despite its importance.Combining four rounds of the China Household Finance Survey(CHFS)data,this paper measures and discusses wealth inequality in China,with a special emphasis on the contribution of housing.Our analysis reveals that housing is the largest contributor to wealth inequality,responsible for around 70 percent of total wealth inequality,and its contribution has been increasing over time.Our research ejforts have focused on the housing wealth disparity,exploring its composition from alternative perspectives.The results show that housing wealth inequality has also been rising over time and an absolute majority of housing wealth inequality is due to within-group gaps.Finally,we employ Wan's(2004)regression-based decomposition methodology to quantify the contributions of dijferent determinants to housing wealth disparity in China,and to demonstrate serious biases in the conventional approach that is often used to analyze housing wealth inequality.

Ownership Restructuring,Marketization and Wealth Inequality in Urban China:1995 and 2002

This paper proposes a property transformation perspective to examine the mechanisms of wealth accumulation and wealth inequality creation during China kpost-1978 transformation. It examines how enterprise ownership restructuring, marketization and state politics have resulted in greater wealth inequality between cadres and ordinary workers, between public＂ sectors^organizations and private sectors^organizations. Mainly drawing on data from the Chinese Household Income Project condueted in 1995 and 2002, we find that the property transformation process has created greater wealth disparity among different occupational groups and among those working in different work organ＆ations since the mid-1990s. However, it is inconclusive whether non-housing wealth or total household wealth are increasing at the same pace across different occupations and work organizations with the growing market penetration and the spread of privatization,

美国遗产税的论争、研究之新进展及其对我国的启示

在美国税制体系中,遗产税所占比重并不是很大,一直都排在个人所得税、公司所得税、社会保险税和消费税之后,但是在美国社会尤其是国会内部,废止遗产税的争论一直在持续,并且远远超过对于其他税收的争论,同时也有不少经济专家、法学专家在不断地对遗产税进行实证研究。习近平总书记强调指出,“全体人民共同富裕是中国式现代化的本质特征”。遗产税作为调节收入和财富不平等的最后平衡器,未来必会发挥其应有的作用。当然,一个涉及社会公平的税制的顶层设计需要漫长的研究过程。介绍美国社会学术界和政界对待遗产税的立场以及实证研究情况,以期为我国建立遗产税制度提供一定的理论参考。

我国城镇居民住房财富分配不平等及贡献率分解研究

基于中国人民大学数据与调查中心的家庭微观调查数据,本文选取基尼系数和阿克金森指数两个指标,考察了我国城镇居民住房财富分配的不平等状况,并就基尼系数的测算结果对各类不平等进行了贡献率分解。结果表明,我国城镇居民住房财富分配的不平等程度不但非常高,而且还有进一步提高的趋势;从对基尼系数贡献率的分解结果看,地区间和东部地区内部不平等对城镇居民住房财富分配不平等的贡献率最大,家庭在户籍状况、收入水平、以及受教育状况等方面的差异都是导致我国城镇居民住房财富不平等的重要原因。

财富不平等会抑制金融素养对家庭借贷行为的作用效果吗——基于CHFS数据的经验分析

本文基于2013年中国家庭金融调查(CHFS)数据,选用工具变量法,考察了金融素养对城乡家庭借贷行为影响的差异性,并验证了财富不平等扩大会抑制金融素养对家庭借贷行为的影响。研究发现:(1)金融素养是影响家庭借贷行为的重要因素。户主金融素养水平的改善显著提高了家庭发生借贷的概率与家庭借贷规模。(2)金融素养对城乡家庭借贷行为的影响存在明显差异,金融素养的提高对信贷约束较为严重的农村家庭借贷行为的促进作用更大。(3)财富不平等对家庭借贷行为存在明显的抑制作用,财富不平等的扩大减少了家庭借贷需求,降低了家庭发生借贷的概率和家庭负债规模。(4)随着家庭财富不平等程度的扩大,金融素养对家庭借贷行为的促进作用受到抑制。基于以上结论,政府应该大力开展消费者金融素养教育,注重家庭收入分配合理性,从而推动我国消费金融市场的健康发展。

贫富差距、供求弹性与房价

近些年,中国的贫富差距和房价居高不下,但现有文献忽视供求弹性与贫富差距交互作用对房价的影响。据此,本文构建结合贫富差距和供求弹性的住房存量调整模型,使用中国2002—2012年7省份33个城市的UHS数据发现,收入和财富的基尼系数对房价有正影响;供求弹性对房价分别有负影响和正影响;收入和财富基尼系数与供求弹性交互项对房价分别有正影响和负影响。据此,为防止房价泡沫,各级政府一方面应缩小贫富差距,另一方面应增加土地和住房供给。

什么导致了中国城镇家庭的消费不平等

以消费不平等作为反映经济不平等的重要指标,本文系统研究了中国城镇家庭消费不平等的成因。采用中国跨省区城镇家庭调查数据,基于再中心化影响函数的实证分析结果显示:我国城镇家庭的收入与净资产的不平等是导致其消费不平等的重要原因。此外,户主的性别、婚姻状况、健康状况、宗教信仰以及家庭人口结构等因素也对城镇家庭消费不平等有着不同程度的显著影响。

数字金融、家庭财富与共同富裕

文章使用2017年中国家庭金融调查(CHFS)数据,实证研究了数字金融对家庭财富积累、财富不平等的影响。研究发现:(1)在考虑了内生性问题的影响后,数字金融能够显著促进家庭财富积累,经过使用多种方法进行稳健性检验,该结论依然成立。(2)创业和配置风险金融资产是数字金融影响家庭财富的重要渠道。(3)财富规模越小的家庭,使用数字金融产生的创富作用越大,并且老年人、低教育程度、低收入水平、农业户口群体家庭和农村居民家庭使用数字金融能够产生更大的创富作用。总的来说,财富是富裕的题中之义,数字金融能够在提升家庭财富总体水平的基础上缓解财富不平等,从而有利于实现共同富裕。文章的研究发现为推动共同富裕提供了政策参考依据。

通货膨胀对家庭财富不平等的影响分析

通货膨胀对财富的再分配效应一直以来为学界所关注。文章采用奥尔多研究中心发布的家庭金融调查数据,从微观角度分析了通货膨胀对居民收入及财富不平等的影响情况。研究表明,中国家庭财富不平等状况较收入不平等更为严重。通货膨胀拉大了居民的收入、财富差距。具体而言通胀每上升1%,人群收入基尼系数上升0.1%,财富基尼系数也随之上升;家庭财富抗通胀能力与其资产结构有关,富有家庭持有较多通胀保护资产,因而财富受通胀影响较小;除总资产因素外,家庭特征也会影响居民家庭应对通胀的能力。受教育程度更高的家庭以及运用了财务杠杆的家庭,能够更好地应对通货膨胀的影响。