Applications of snake venoms in treatment of cancer

Snake venoms are folk medicines used since ages. The components of snake venoms have high specific affinity and actions on cells and cell components. Also snake venoms are largely cytotoxic to tumor cells than normal cells. In addition to these, they have several therapeutic actions that make them an attractive option in the management of cancer. The advent of modern technologies has greatly helped in extracting and identifying new components of therapeutic interests in short time. The article highlights the importance of snake venoms in the management of cancer, so as to motivate curious researchers to devote their skills in this fascinating area. This in turn may bring hope, smile and relief to several cancer patients in future.

Bioactive peptides from scorpion venoms:therapeutic scaffolds and pharmacological tools

Evolution and natural selection have endowed animal venoms,including scorpion venoms,with a wide range of pharmacological properties.Consequently,scorpions,their venoms,and/or their body parts have been used since time immemorial in traditional medicines,especially in Africa and Asia.With respect to their pharmacological potential,bioactive peptides from scorpion venoms have become an important source of scientific research.With the rapid increase in the characterization of various components from scorpion venoms,a large number of peptides are identified with an aim of combating a myriad of emerging global health problems.Moreover,some scorpion venom-derived peptides have been established as potential scaffolds helpful for drug development.In this review,we summarize the promising scorpion venoms-derived peptides as drug candidates.Accordingly,we highlight the data and knowledge needed for continuous characterization and development of additional natural peptides from scorpion venoms,as potential drugs that can treat related diseases.

Two novel antimicrobial peptides from skin venoms of spadefoot toad Megophrys minor

Amphibian skin contains rich bioactive peptides. Especially, a large amount of antimicrobial peptides have been identified from amphibian skin secretions. Antimicrobial peptides display potent cytolytic activities against a range of pathogenic bacteria and fungi and play important defense roles. No antimicrobial peptides have been reported from toads belonging to the family of Pelobatidae. In this work, two novel antimicrobial peptides(Megin 1 and Megin 2) were purified and characterized from the skin venoms of spadefoot toad Megophrys minor(Pelobatidae, Anura, Amphibia). Megin 1 had an amino acid sequence of FLKGCWTKWYSLKPKCPF-NH2, which was composed of 18 amino acid residues and contained an intra-molecular disulfide bridge and an amidated C-terminus. Megin 2 had an amino acid sequence of FFVLKFLLKWAGKVGLEHLACKFKNWC, which was composed of 27 amino acid residues and contained an intra-molecular disulfide bridge. Both Megin 1 and Megin 2 showed potential antimicrobial abilities against bacteria and fungi. The MICs of Megin 1 against Escherichia coli, Bacillus dysenteriae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Candida albicans were 25, 3, 6.25, 3, and 50 μg·m L^(-1), respectively. The corresponding MICs for Megin 2 were 6.25, 1.5, 12.5, 1.5, and 12.5 μg·m L^(-1), respectively. They also exerted strong hemolytic activity against human and rabbit red cells. The results suggested that megin peptides in the toad skin of M. minor displayed toxic effects on both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. This was the first report of antimicrobial peptides from amphibians belonging to the family of Pelobatidae.

The peptide fraction of Bothrops jararaca snake venom induces toxicological effects on the male reproductive system after local envenomation in mice

Bothrops envenomation is complex and provokes prominent local tissue damage and systemic disturbances,but little is known about their effects on the male reproductive system.After intratesticular injection,the bioactive peptide fraction(Bj-PF)obtained from Bothrops jararaca snake venom changes the structure of different stages of the seminiferous epithelium cycle in adult mice.For the first time,we investigated whether local envenomation of Bj-PF induces toxicological effects on the male reproductive system,particularly on the seminiferous epithelium and Sertoli cells.Male adult mice were treated with 0.24 mg.kg^(-1) by intramuscular(i.m.)injection for 24 h.The testes samples were collected for morphological and morphometric evaluation.The toxicological effects of Bj-PF were also analyzed on mitochondrial metabolism and nitrite(NO2)production in 15P-1 Sertoli cell culture.Bj-PF changed the structure and function of the seminiferous epithelium,particularly the disruption of the epithelium and the presence of degenerated germ cells in the adluminal compartment,but there were no alterations in the basal compartment.Bj-PF increased the thickness of the seminiferous epithelium and decreased the lumen diameter of the tubule.Semiquantitative histological assessment of the degree of tubule degeneration revealed that Bj-PF also increased the number of hypospermatogenic tubules compared to control.Bj-PF reduced NO2 levels in 15P-1 Sertoli cells without changing the mitochondrial metabolism.Overall,the fact that Bj-PF alters the structure and function of the seminiferous epithelium suggests that bioactive peptides found in B.jararaca snake venom can have toxicological effects on the reproductive systems of affected male mice,providing new insight into the biological characteristics of snake venom and therapeutic strategies for envenomation inflammation.

Effect of Purified Paper Wasp Ropalidia marginata Venom Toxins on Different Biomolecules in Mice Serum

This study evaluated the effects of purified paper wasp Ropalidia marginata venoms on various biomolecules in the blood serum of albino mice. Changes in the concentration of some important macromolecules, i.e., proteins, free amino acids, uric acid, cholesterol, pyruvic acid, total lipids and glucose were noted down. These alterations were measured after intraperitoneal injection of 40% and 80% 24-hour LD50 purified Ropalidia marginata venom toxin. Serum total protein levels were found to decrease to 78% after 6 hrs, while serum free amino acid levels were significantly increased to 117% 6 hrs after venom injection compared to control. It was also found that serum uric acid levels increased to 138% after 8 hrs of venom injection compared to control. The increase in serum cholesterol i.e. (101% and 106%) and pyruvic acid increased significantly to a maximum value of 106% after 6 hrs of treatment at 40% LD50. Glycogen levels in the gastrocnemius muscle were found to decrease significantly (p-0.05) to 43% and 92% at LD50 after injection of purified Ropalidia marginata venom after 8 h and 80% at LD50 compared to control. Moreover, up to 71% and 81% were obtained at 10 hrs of treatment with the same dose. In the present study, the purified toxins significantly changed the levels of biomolecules in blood serum, indicating their wider effects on cellular physiology due to toxic effects and stress on the animal. These toxins can be good antigens and stimulate immune responses in experimental mice.

Research Progress on the Innate Immunity of Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) and the Regulation Mechanism of Parasitic Wasp Venom Protein

[Objectives]The use of natural enemies of living insects and their derivatives can effectively avoid the problems of pesticide residues,pest resistance,biodiversity decline,control effect weakening and so on.[Methods]Parasites inject various parasitic factors into hosts to inhibit the development of hosts,adjust the immunity of hosts,interfere with the growth and development of hosts,and reduce the nutrition metabolism of hosts,so as to ensure the growth and development of the offspring.Host pests can escape or conquer the parasitism of parasitic wasps through immune defense system in order to reproduce their own offspring.[Results]Under intense and strong selection pressure,in order to effectively ensure the success rate of parasitism,the adaptive diversity of parasitism strategies of parasitic wasps is finally caused.In the process of evolution and under the pressure of directional selection,the innate immunity and acquired immunity gradually evolve.[Conclusions]In-depth research on parasitic factors of parasitic wasps and their interaction with crop pests immunity and development can not only improve theoretical understanding of insect immunity and development biology,pest biological control and other disciplines,but also be expected to enable the application of some components of parasitic factors to agriculture,medicine and pharmacy.Bactrocera dorsalis is a destructive fruit and vegetable pest.This paper summarized the venom protein of B.dorsalis parasitoids and the immune interaction with hosts,in order to provide theoretical basis for biological control of plant pests by using parasitic natural enemies.

The effects of scorpion(Buthus martensi Karsch)venom on rat left ventricular function

In order to investigate the cardiovascular effects of the scorpion(Buthus martensiKarsch)venom(BmKv),the left ventricle of the rats was catheterized via the right carotidartery.The LVP,LVEDP,+dp/dt max,Vmax,HR and BP were observed.The results showedthat intravenous injection of the BmKv(60μg/kg),in comparison with the control,elicited obvi-ous hypertension and increase of cardiac contractility,both of which lasted for 1h,while theheart rate had no significant change rand that pretreating the rats with alpha-adrenergic blocker,phentolamine,antagonized the hypertensive effects,but did not antagonize the increase of cardiaccontractility.Pretreatment with beta-adrenergic blocker,propranolol,has no influence on the ef-fects of the venom.It is suggested that the hypertensive effects are due to the activation of al-pha-adrenergic receptor,whereas the increase of cardiac contractility may not be resulted fromthe activation of beta-adrenergic receptor.The BmKv treated with dithiothreitol before injectionhad no cardiovascular effects,indicating that the intact disulfide bridges play a decisive role inthe cardiovascular effects of the BmKv.

Essential Oils from Mentha piperita,Cymbopogon citratus,Rosmarinus officinalis,Peumus boldus and Foeniculum vulgare:Inhibition of Phospholipase A_(2) and Cytotoxicity to Human Erythrocytes

The essential oils from Mentha piperita, Cymbopogon citratus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Peumus boldus and Foeniculum vulgare were extracted by hydrodistillation and characterized and quantified by GC-MS and GC-DIC. The oils induced hemolysis with all the doses evaluated (0.6 to 1.8 μL), and the diameters of the halos varied between 9 and 15 mm. Pre-incubation of P. boldus oil with Bothrops jararacussu venom resulted in potentiation of venom-induced hemolysis (30%) (proteases and phospholipases A2). The essential oil from M. piperita (0.6 μL) inhibited venom-induced hemolysis by 45%, whereas 0.6 μL of R. officinalis oil increased the hemolysis by 20%. For the essential oil from F. vulgare, 100% inhibition of activity (0.6 and 1.2 μL) was observed. The application of C. citratus oil induced hemolysis with all the volumes evaluated. Phospholipase activity induced by the venom was only inhibited (10%) with the 0.6 μL volume of R. officinalis oil. The oils from M. piperita and F. vulgare (1.8 μL) and C. citratus oil (0.6 μL) potentiated the phospholipase activity. The results highlight the need for a broad characterization and regulation of the use of natural products, because they can have therapeutic or toxic actions.

Anti-trypanosomal Activity of Bufonidae(Toad)Venom Crude Extract on Trypanosoma brucei brucei in Swiss Mice

Trypanosomiasis afflicts about 6~7 million people globally and to a large extent impedes livestock production in Africa.Naturally,trypanosomal parasites undergo genetic mutation and have developed resistance over a wide range of therapies.The utilization of animals and plants products has presented therapeutic potential for identifying novel anti-trypanosomal drugs.This study evaluated toad venom for anti-trypanosomal potency in-vivo in Swiss mice.Toads were collected from July to August 2019.The acute oral toxicity and biochemical characterization of the toad venom were determined.The experimental mice were administered various doses(130 mg/kg,173 mg/kg and 217 mg/kg)of the toad venom crude extract and 0.75 mg/mL of Diamizan Plus standard drug for the treatment of trypanosomiasis,once daily for 3 days.The in-vivo anti-trypanosomal activity was evaluated by a curative test,after infecting the mice with Trypanosoma brucei brucei.The pre-patent period was 72 hours before treatment commenced.The overall results showed that trypanosomal load was highest in the control group while the group treated with Diamizan drug had the least trypanosomal load.As such,the mean trypanosomal load in relation to treatments showed a very high significant difference(P<0.05).Also,the mean trypanosomal load in Swiss mice in relation to the highest dosage of toad venom versus Diamizan drug showed a very high significant difference(P<0.05).The mean change in relation to the haematological parameters across treatments groups varied significantly(P<0.05)with the exception of Hb which showed no significant difference(P>0.05)across treatment groups.The over 50%reduction in the trypanosomal load in the 130 mg/kg group in comparison with the control group brings to bare the anti-trypanosomal potency of the toad venom.The anti-trypanosomal activity demonstrated by the toad venom has provided basis for development of new therapeutic agents from different toad species.The study recommends further studies(both in-vivo and in-vitro)followed by the characterization of the active compounds present in the toad venom responsible for the anti-tyrpanosomal activity observed alongside the management and conservation of these species.

Therapeutic potential of snake venom in cancer therapy:current perspectives

Many active secretions produced by animals have been employed in the development of new drugs to treat diseases such as hypertension and cancer.Snake venom toxins coutributed significantly to the treatment of many medical conditions.There are many published studies describing and elucidating the anti-cancer potential of snake venom.Cancer therapy is one of the main areas for the use of protein peptides and enzymes originating from animals of different species.Some of these proteins or peptides and enzymes from snake venom when isolated and evaluated may bind specifically to cancer cell membranes,affecting the migration and proliferation of these cells.Some of substances found in the snake venom present a great potential as anti-tumor agent.In this review,we presented the main results of recent years of research involving the active compounds of snake venom that have anticancer activity.

Effects of complement inhibition on the ABC phenomenon in rats

Researchers reported that intravenously injected PEGylated colloidal drug carriers lose their long-circulating characteristic and accumulated extensively in liver when they are administrated twice in the same animal with certain intervals. This phenomenon was referred to as the 'accelerated blood clearance(ABC) phenomenon'. Some former studies had found that complement-mediated phagocytosis, activated by antigen–antibody complex, was responsible for inducing the phenomenon. According to the theory, we have used cobra venom factor to deplete complement in vivo and to investigate the effect of complement inhibition on the ABC phenomenon. Rats were administered by injection of cobra venom factor solution to build up the model of complement exhaustion/inhibition, and the effect of the inhibition of complement on ABC phenomenon was carried out. It seemed that inhibition of complement didn’t affect the pharmacokinetic of the first infection. By contrast, in rats of which complement had been depleted, the second dose of PEGylated nanoemulsions showed enhanced circulation time compared with normal rats in a complement inhibition-independent manner, but the ABC phenomenon was not completely eliminated. It indicated that complement inhibition could certainly weaken the accelerated clearance;meanwhile, there were other factors causing the ABC effect.These findings provide novel insights into the attenuating of ABC phenomenon and lay foundation for further study of immune mechanism.

Animal venom studies: Current benefits and future developments

Poisonous organisms are represented in many taxa, including kingdom Animalia. During evolution, animals have developed special organs for production and injection of venoms. Animal venoms are complex mixtures, compositions of which depend on species producing venom. The most known and studied poisonous terrestrial animals are snakes, scorpions and spiders. Among marine animals, these are jellyfishes, anemones and cone snails. The toxic substances in the venom ofthese animals are mainly of protein and peptide origin. Recent studies have indicated that the single venom may contain up to several hundred different components producing diverse physiological effects. Bites or stings by certain poisonous species result in severe envenomations leading in some cases to death. This raises the problem of bite treatment. The most effective treatment so far is the application of antivenoms. To enhance the effectiveness of such treatments, the knowledge of venom composition is needed. On the other hand, venoms contain substances with unique biological properties, which can be used both in basic science and in clinical applications. The best example of toxin application in basic science is α-bungarotoxin the discovery of which made a big impact on the studies of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Today compositions of venom from many species have already been examined. Based on these data, one can conclude that venoms contain a large number of individual components belonging to a limited number of structural types. Often minor changes in the amino acid sequence give rise to new biological properties. Change in the living conditions of poisonous animals lead to alterations in the composition of venoms resulting in appearance of new toxins. At the same time introduction of new methods of proteomics and genomics lead to discoveries of new compounds, which may serve as research tools or as templates for the development of novel drugs. The application of these sensitive and comprehensive methods allows studying either of venoms available in tiny amounts or of low abundant components in already known venoms.

Anti-arthritic effects of microneedling with bee venom gel

Objective:To combine with transdermal drug delivery using microneedle to simulate the bee venom therapy to evaluate the permeation of bee venom gel.Methods:In this study,the sodium urate and LPS were used on rats and mice to construct the model.Bee venom gelemicroneedle combination effect on the model is to determine the role of microneedle gel permeation by observing inflammation factors.Results:Compared with the model group,the bee venom gelemicroneedle combination group can reduce the level of serum nitric oxide of the acute gouty inflammation model caused by sodium urate,and on LPS induced mouse model of acute inflammation effect and the micro.Conclusions:Bee venom can significantly suppress the occurrence of gouty arthritis inflammation in rats and mice LPS inflammatory reaction.Choose the 750 mm microneedle with 10N force on skin about 3 minutes,bee venom can play the optimal role,and the anti-inflammatory effect is obvious.Microneedles can promote the percutaneous absorption of the active macromolecules bee venom gel.

Interventional effect of scorpion venom from Buthus martensii Karsch in Liaoning on somatic pain

BACKGROUND: Scorpion venom from Buthus martensii Karsch is a kind of protein toxin secreted by scorpion tail. According to records of Pen-ts’ao Kan-mu, the dried scorpion’s body and tail are used as medicine, which mainly treating rheumatism numbness, pain and convulsion. Some researches consider that scorpion toxin is the main pharmacological active component of the dried scorpion, and it has 4 times stronger analgesic effect on somatic pain than morphine. OBJECTIVE: To observe the interventional effect of scorpion venom of Buthus martensii Karsch analgesic active peptide on somatic pain. DESIGN: A randomized and controlled trial. SETTING: Department of Physiology, Shenyang Medical College. MATERIALS: Totally 80 Wistar rats (provided by Animal Center of Shenyang Medical College), male and female in half, aged 3 to 4 months, weighed 250 to 350 g, were used in this trial. They were randomly divided into 4 groups: experimental group, control group, morphine group and naloxone group, with 20 in each group. Analgesia active peptide from buthus martensii karsch venom (provided by Biochemical Department of Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 1 mL/dosage), morphine (produced by Shanghai First Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant), naloxone (opium acceptor inhibitor, American Sigma Corporation), ATAC-350 data-processing machine (Nihon Kohden Corporation), X-Y recording instrument (Nihon Kohden Corporation). METHODS: The experiment was conducted in the Department of Physiology, Shenyang Medical College from July 2003 to July 2005. ① After all the animals were anesthetized, common peroneal nerve is dissected and ligated at middle part. Posterior nucleus group of thalamus (PO) and the tail nuclear were oriented according to G. Paxino rat brain three-dimensional orientation atlas. Glass micro electrode was inserted into PO as guiding electrode, connected with ATAC-350 data-processing machine and X-Y recording instrument, to record the unit evoked potential of PO, taking the evoked potential discharge of the common peroneal nerve of PO as the somatic pain index.② Single square-wave stimulation of intensity 17-19 volt, wave wide 0.2 ms, time delay 20 ms was exerted on common peroneal nerve. The time interval was 5 minutes. X-Y recording instrument was used to draw the graph. 0.002 mg scorpion venom analgesic active peptide was injected into the rats of the experimental group; 0.002 mg normal saline was injected into the rats of the control group through caudate nucleus; 0.002 mg morphine was injected into the rats of morphine group through caudate nucleus; 1.0 mg/kg naloxone was intraperitoneally into the rats of naloxone group, then 0.002 mg scorpion venom was injected into the rats of control group through caudate nucleus.Changes of evoked potential of PO of 3 groups were observed. ③After experiment, 1 μA direct current was given to the guiding electrode and micro electrode , and it lasted for 5 minutes. Pontamine sky blue was used to label the peak of electrode by electrophoresis. Brain tissue was soaked in formalin for 1 week then sliced into 1.0 to 1.5 mm sections. Electrode was orientated according to blue spots. Compared with G . Parino rat brain three-dimensional orientation atlas, we confirmed if the electrode orientation is consistent with PO orientation of G. Parino rat brain three-dimensional orientation atlas. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Changes of the evoked potential of PO in each group. RESULTS: Totally 80 Wistar rats were enrolled in this experiment. Four rats in the experimental group and two in the morphine group died of overdose of anesthesia, and finally 74 rats entered the stage of result analysis. The inhibitory action time of evoked potential of PO has no statistical difference in between experiment group and morphine group (P > 0.05). The whole inhibitory action time, timeof initiate recovery and time of complete recovery of PO of experiment group were longer than those in the morphine group [(45±0.7),(50±9.2),(65±8.1);(35±7.8),(40±8.9),(50±7.6) min,P < 0.05].The change of evoked potential of PO was not obviously in the control group and naloxone group (P > 0.05), and the above-mentioned 4 indexes were nearly 0. CONCLUSION: Scorpion venom possesses obviously inhibitory effect on somatic pain, and its inhibitory effect is stronger than that of the same dosage and concentration of morphine. Scorpion venom exerts analgesic effect on somatic pain through opium acceptor.

Investigation of the Biochemical and Histological Changes Induced by Zearalenone Mycotoxin on Liver in Male Mice and the Protective Role of Crude Venom Extracted from Jellyfish <i>Cassiopea Andromeda</i>

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species of fungi which contaminate human foods and animal feeds worldwide. In this study hepatotoxicity of ZEN was evaluated in mice by oral adminis-tration of single and repeated doses of ZEN mycotoxin (2.7 mg/kg b.w.). The protective effect of crude venom extracted from jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda was also assessed. Mice were divided into four groups (N = 10). G1: receiving the toxin once and sacrificed 48 h later, G2: toxin administered twice for one week, G3: toxin administered twice a week for two weeks, G4: pretreated orally by a single dose of crude venom (1.78 mg/20g) 24 hours prior to administration of ZEN twice a week for two weeks. Each treated group had its corresponding control which received 1% DMSO sa-line.ZEN treatment significantly increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartateaminotrnsferase (AST) and alka-line phosphatase (ALP) activities after 48 hours and two weeks, while ALT was also significantly increased after one week. Tumor necrosis factoralpha (TNF-α) level was undetected in treated and control groups except the group treated with ZEN for one week. Alphafetoprotein (AFP) level was increased significantly only after two weeks. The activity of antioxidants was significantly increased in all groups. ZEN was also found to modify the serum proteins especially gamma-globulin which showed a significant decrease after 48 h and two weeks. Improvement in liver func-tion occurred in the group pretreated with the crude venom, and AFP and antioxidants returned to normal level, while TNF-α level was also undetected. Gamma globulin was significantly increased. The recovery observed in the group which was pretreated with crude venom may related to bradykinin content of this venom which exhibits a hepatoprotective effect. Histological changes in mouse liver coincided with biochemical changes. In conclusion, this study revealed that ZEN induced liver function and structural changes promising an approach for using a crude venom of jellyfish to enhance liver function.

Molecular Phylogeny of the Genus Gloydius(Serpentes: Crotalinae)

Based on two mitochondrial genes(cyt b, ND4) and one nuclear gene(c-mos), we explored the relationships within the Asian pit viper genus Gloydius. In total, 23 samples representing 10 species were analyzed. All phyloge- netic analyses support a monophyletic Gloydius with two major clades, one comprising G. brevicaudus, G. blomhof- fii, and G. ussuriensis with the sister clade consisting of G. intermedius, G. saxatilis, G. halys and G. shedaoensis. The relationships among the three montane species G. strauchi, G. qinlingensis and G. liupanensis, as well as the two monophyletic groups, are unstable, and discussed. Divergence date estimation indicates that Gloydius lineage formed 15 Ma and diversification of the genus occurred at 9.89 Ma. Issues regarding the taxonomy of this genus are discussed where necessary.

Snake Venom Antithrombus Ezyme: Column Chomatography Sepration

The preliminary results of our research with column chromatography inbrief is presented to separate and purify simultaneously various kinds offractions with biochemical and pharmaceutical activities from a kinds ofsnake venom and to make the proceeding either simplicity or economy. 2g of dry agkistrodon halys pallas of Jiang Ze area dissolved with

Identifying Intraspecific Variation in Venom Yield of Chinese Cobra(Naja atra) from Ten Populations in China's Mainland

Detailed information on venom yield is helpful in preparing antivenoms and treating snakebites, but such information is lacking for many species of venomous snakes. The Chinese cobra(Naja atra) is a large sized, venomous snake commonly found in southeastern China, where it causes a heavy burden of snakebites. To examine the effects of various factors(morphology, sex, age, season, and geographical origin) on the venom yield in this snake, we collected venom samples of 446 individuals(426 adults and 20 neonates) from 10 populations of N. atra over an eightyear period. We used two variables, lyophilized venom mass(venom yield) and solid content of venom(% solids), to quantify the venom yield. We used linear regression analysis to check if venom yield was related to morphological factors, one-way ANOVA and one-way ANCOVA to detect the sexual, ontogenetic, and geographic variation in venom yield, and repeated-measures ANOVA to examine seasonal shifts in venom yield. Our results indicate that venom yield of N. atra is positively related to the morphological traits examined, with male snakes expelling more venom than females. Venom yield in N. atra was age-related, with elder snakes always expelling more venom than younger ones. Geographic variation in venom yield was also observed, while seasonal variation was not. The solid content of venom was lower in males than in females, but this was not related to morphology, season, age, or geography. Our findings suggest that venom yield in N. atra is influenced by multiple factors, as well as by the interactions among these factors.

蛇毒试剂在临床诊断上的应用

蛇毒试剂是指从蛇毒中分离提取的,可用于临床诊断的有效成分,主要是诊断蛇酶试剂。我国现有的蛇毒试剂包括中国蝰蛇毒试剂、中国蕲蛇酶试剂、诱导血小板聚集蛇毒试剂和蛇毒因子溶血试剂,均已有科研产品提供临床诊断应用。 1 中国蝰蛇毒试剂 国外利用蝰蛇毒(Russell’s viper venom)作为凝血因子缺乏所致出血性疾病的临床诊断试剂由来已久,产品有如stypven,VVR等。因其性能可靠,临床乐于采用。我国《临床检验学》一书早已有“蝰蛇毒时间测定”的记载,但无这种试剂供应,临床上难以开展这项检验。

α-AMIDOALKYLATION VIA SULFONES:TOWARDS THE SYNTHESIS OF ANT VENOM ALKALOIDS

α－ＡＭＩＤＯＡＬＫＹＬＡＴＩＯＮ ＶＩＡ ＳＵＬＦＯＮＥＳ：ＴＯＷＡＲＤＳ ＴＨＥ ＳＹＮＴＨＥＳＩＳ ＯＦ ＡＮＴ ＶＥＮＯＭ ＡＬＫＡＬＯＩＤＳα－ＡＭＩＤＯＡＬＫＹＬＡＴＩＯＮＶＩＡＳＵＬＦＯＮＥＳ：ＴＯＷＡＲＤＳＴＨＥＳＹＮＴＨＥＳＩＳＯＦ...