Foeniculum vulgare Mill.inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced microglia activation and ameliorates neuroinflammation-mediated behavioral deficits in mice

Objective:To investigate the effect of Foeniculum vulgare extract against lipopolysaccharide(LPS)-induced microglial activation in vitro as well as cognitive behavioral deficits in mice.Methods:LPS-activated BV-2 cell viability was measured using MTT assay and reactive oxygen species(ROS)was studied using DCF-DA assay.The antioxidative enzymes and pro-inflammatory mediators were analyzed using respective ELISA kits and Western blotting.For in vivo testing,LPS(1 mg/kg,i.p.)was given daily for five days in male Swiss albino mice to produce chronic neuroinflammation.Cognitive and behavioral tests were performed using open-field,passive avoidance,and rotarod experiments in LPS-induced mice.Results:Foeniculum vulgare extract(25,50 and 100μg/mL)significantly attenuated the LPS-activated increase in nitric oxide(NO),ROS,cyclooxygenase-2,inducible NO synthase,IL-6,and TNF-alpha(P<0.05).Moreover,LPS-induced oxidative stress and reduced antioxidative enzyme levels were significantly improved by Foeniculum vulgare extract(P<0.05).The extract also regulated the NF-κB/MAPK signaling in BV-2 cells.In an in vivo study,Foeniculum vulgare extract(50,100,and 200 mg/kg)markedly mitigated the LPS-induced cognitive and locomotor impairments in mice.The fingerprinting analysis showed distinctive peaks with rutin,kaempferol-3-O-glucoside,and anethole as identifiable compounds.Conclusions:Foeniculum vulgare extract can ameliorate LPS-stimulated neuroinflammatory responses in BV-2 microglial cells and improve cognitive and locomotor performance in LPS-administered mice.

茴香(Foeniculum Vulgare Mill)精油利用的研究进展

本文综述了茴香精油在抗菌、抗氧化、杀虫、医药、日化以及食品添加剂等方面的应用,简单介绍了茴香精油的开发现状和应用前景。

Genetic Diversity of SSR Markers in Cultivated Hordeum vulgare L.in Qinghai Province

[Objective]The aim was to analyze genetic diversity of SSR markers in Hordeum vulgare L.in Qinghai Province and lay a foundation for screening and protecting some excellent H.vulgare cultivars.[Method]SSR markers were used to evaluate the genetic diversity of 42 cultivated H.vulgare from Qinghai Province.[Result]42 H.vulgare showed polymorphism in 7 SSR markers locus.A total of 24 alleles were identified,and the number of alleles per locus ranged from 1 to 6,with an average of 3.0.According to SSR markers polymorphism,42 H.vulgare could be divided into 4 groups,namely I,II,III and IV.[Result]The study indicated that cultivated H.vulgare from Qinghai Province is rich in genetic diversity,which will provide reference for selecting parent of H.vulgare breeding.

利用聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳和高效液相色谱法对Scarlett和Prestige大麦（大麦属vulgare L）的麦芽、麦汗以及啤酒中蛋白组分的比较研究

本研究利用聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳（SDS－PAGE）和反相高效液相色谱法（RP－HPLC），对Scarlett和Prestige大麦麦芽的蛋白组分（大麦醇溶蛋白、清蛋白和其他可溶性蛋白）进行了研究，同时跟踪分析了由这两种麦芽制成的麦芽汁以及啤酒中的蛋白质变化情况。此外，对这两个大麦品种进行了工业酿造规模的研究。 通过对反相高效液相色谱数据进行统计学分析，发现大麦醇溶蛋白在发芽期间存在一个水解过程，导致其含量降低，同时产生较少的疏水性缩氨酸。相比之下，清蛋白和其他可溶性蛋白质在发芽过程中含量会增加。一些麦芽水溶性蛋白会由大麦醇溶蛋白质水解产生。我们还观察分析了这两个品种麦芽蛋白组分数量上的差别。 聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳图显示出麦芽汁中的绝大部分组分在成品啤酒中也可以观测到。然而，高效液相色谱数据的化学计量分析显示Scarlett和Prestige大麦麦汁蛋白组分间存在数量上的差异。Scarlett大麦麦汁比Prestige麦汁中含有更多的蛋白质。与两种麦芽汁相比，两种成品啤酒样品中的蛋白相似性更强。 试验将最优方法成功用于两种大麦麦芽蛋白质组分的研究中，同时跟踪分析了发芽期间蛋白质组分的变化情况以及麦芽汁和成品啤酒中蛋白质组分的变化。

Protective effects of Foeniculum vulgare root bark extract against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice

AIM To investigate the protective effects of Foeniculum vulgare root bark (FVRB), a traditional Uyghur medicine, against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice. METHODS Mice were randomly divided into eight groups (n = 20 each). Except for the normal control group, mice in the rest groups were intraperitoneally injected (i.p.) with 0.1% CCl4-olive oil mixture at 10 mL/kg twice a week to induce liver fibrosis. After 4 wk, mice were treated concurrently with the 70% ethanol extract of FVRB (88, 176, 352 and 704 mg/kg, respectively) daily by oral gavage for 4 wk to evaluate its protective effects. Serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), triglyceride (TG), hexadecenoic acid (HA), laminin (LN), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver tissues were measured. Hematoxylin-eosin (H and E) staining and Masson trichrome (MT) staining were performed to assess histopathological changes in the liver. The expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1), matrix metalloprotein 9 (MMP-9) and metallopeptidase inhibitor 1 (TIMP-1) was detected by immunohistochemical analysis. Additionally, TGF-beta 1 and alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) protein expression was measured by Western blot. RESULTS A significant reduction in serum levels of AST, ALT, TG, HA and LN was observed in the FVRB-treated groups, suggesting that FVRB displayed hepatoprotective effects. Also, the depletion of GSH, SOD, and MDA accumulation in liver tissues was suppressed by FVRB. The expression of TGF-beta 1, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 determined by immunohistochemistry was markedly reduced in a dose-dependent manner by FVRB treatment. Furthermore, protective effects of FVRB against CCl4-induced liver injury were confirmed by histopathological studies. Protein expression of TGF-beta 1 and alpha-SMA detected by Western blot was decreased by FVRB treatment. CONCLUSION Our results indicate that FVRB may be a promising agent against hepatic fibrosis and its possible mechanisms are inhibiting lipid peroxidation and reducing collagen formation in liver tissue of liver fibrosis mice.

QTL analysis of flag leaf in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) for morphological traits and chlorophyll content

To understand genetic patterns of the morphological and physiological traits in flag leaf of barley, a double haploid （DH） population derived from the parents Yerong and Franklin was used to determine quantitative trait loci （QTL） controlling length, width, length/width, and chlorophyll content of flag leaves. A total of 9 QTLs showing significantly additive effect were detected in 8 intervals on 5 chromosomes. The variation of individual QTL ranged from 1.9% to 20.2%. For chlorophyll content expressed as SPAD value, 4 QTLs were identified on chromosomes 2H, 3H and 6H; for leaf length and width, 2 QTLs located on chromosomes 5H and 7H, and 2 QTLs located on chromosome 5H were detected; and for length/width, I QTL was detected on chromosome 7H. The identification of these QTLs associated with the properties of flag leaf is useful for barley improvement in breeding programs.

Comparative analysis of antioxidant activities of essential oils and extracts of fennel(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.)seeds from Egypt and China

The present study was conducted to assay the antioxidant activities of essential oils and ethanol extracts of fennel(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.)seeds from Egypt and China.The major components of the Egyptian fennel essential oil were estragole(51.04%),limonene(11.45%),l-fenchone(8.19%)and trans-anethole(3.62%)by GC–MS analysis.Whereas,the major constituents of Chinese fennel essential oil were transanethole(54.26%),estragole(20.25%),l-fenchone(7.36%)and limonene(2.41%).The fennel seed extracts from Egypt and China contained appreciable levels of total phenolic contents(42.24 and 30.94 mg PE/g,respectively).The extracts exhibited good DPPH radical scavenging capacity with IC50(6.34 and 7.17 mg/g),respectively.A high variation in free radical scavenging activities of essential oils was observed.The Chinese fennel essential oil showed high activity in DPPH radical scavenging with IC50(15.66 mg/g).The Egyptian fennel essential oil showed very low activity with IC50(141.82 mg/g).The results of the present investigation demonstrated significant variations in the antioxidant activities of fennel essential oils and extracts from Egypt and China.

GC-MS Analysis of Chemical Components of Volatile Oil in Different Parts of Fennel( Foenicuzu vulgare Mill. )

[Objectives] This study was conducted to analyze the composition of volatile oil in different parts of fennel(Foenicuzu vulgare Mill.) and to compare the differences in the composition of volatile oil in different parts of fennel.[Methods]The steam distillation method was applied to extract volatile oil from different parts of fennel,and the components of volatile oil from different parts of fennel were separated and identified by GC-MS.The relative content of each component was determined by the peak area normalization method.[Results]37,33,18,and 44 chemical components were separated from the volatile oil of fennel roots,stems,young leaves and fruit,respectively,accounting for 98.64%,99.34%,99.59% and 95.99% of the total volatile oil of corresponding parts.A total of 77 chemical components were identified in the four parts,of which 5 were common components.The main component of the volatile oil in the stems and young leaves was trans-anethole.The main components of the volatile oil in fruit were estragole and trans-anethole.And the main component of the volatile oil in the roots was dill apiol.The components in the volatile oil of fennel roots,stems,young leaves and fruit were different in type and content.[Conclusions]This study provides a theoretical reference for the further effective development and utilization of fennel resources.

Beneficial effects of Foeniculum vulgare on ethanol-induced acute gastric mucosal injury in rats

AIM： To examine the anti-ulcerogenic and antioxidant effects of aqueous extracts of Foeniculum vu/gare （FVE） on ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats.METHODS： FVE was administered by gavage at doses of 75, i50 and 300 mg/kg, and famotidine was used at the dose of20mg/kg.Following a 60 min period, all the rats were given 1 mL of ethanol （80%） by gavage. One hour after the administration of ethanol, all groups were sacrificed, and the gastric ulcer index was calculated; whole blood malondialdehyde （MDA） and reduced glutathione （GSH）, serum nitrate, nitrite, ascorbic acid, retinol and β-carotene levels were measured in all the groups.RESULTS： It was found that pretreatment with FVE significantly reduced ethanol-induced gastric damage. This effect of FVE was highest and statistically significant in 300 mg/kg group compared with the control （4.18 ± 2.81 vs 13.15 ± 4.08, P 〈 0.001）. Also, pretreatment with FVE significantly reduced the MDA levels, while significantly increased GSH, nitrite, nitrate, ascorbic acid, retinol and β-carotene levels. CONCLUSION： FVE has clearly a protective effect against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesion, and this effect, at least in part, depends upon the reduction in lipid peroxidation and augmentation in the antioxidant activity.

Optimization of Extraction Conditions of Some Phenolic Compounds from White Horehound (<i>Marrubium vulgare</i>L.) Leaves

This research was aimed to optimize the extraction conditions of three phenolic compounds: total phenolics, flavonoids and condensed tannins, from White Horehound’s leaves (Marrubium vulgare L.). Distilled water and different organic solvents such as: methanol, ethanol and acetone, were used, with various concentrations (20% - 80%, v/v), temperatures (20&deg;C - 60&deg;C) and extraction times (30 - 450 min). Results showed that the maximum total phenolics amounts (293.34 ± 14.60 mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry weigh), were obtained with 60% aqueous methanol at 25&deg;C for 180 min;total flavonoids (79.52 ± 0.55 mg catechin equivalent/g dry weigh) with 80% aqueous methanol at 20&deg;C for 450 min, and condensed tannins (28.15 ± 0.80 mg catechin equivalent/g dry weigh) with 60% aqueous acetone at 50&deg;C and for 180 min. ANOVA test showed the significant effect (***P < 0.001) of the extraction conditions tested on phenolic compounds. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) exhibited the positive effect of low temperatures on total phenolics and flavonoids extraction, and the effect of high temperatures on the condensed tannins extraction. The Response Surface Methodology (RSM) provided predicted values of extraction conditions and maximum polyphenols amounts similar to those obtained experimentally.

GC-MS Analysis and in Vitro Antimicrobial Susceptibility of <i>Foeniculum vulgare</i>Seed Essential Oil

Essential oil from seeds of Foeniculum vulgare was extracted on Clevenger apparatus. Essential oil was analyzed on Gas-Chromatography-Mass spectrometry (GC-MS) from which thirty six components were identified, among which 6 major and 30 minor components having different structural formulae and molecular weight representing total 99.98% of oil. Essential was investigated for its antibacterial and antifungal activity against seven infectious microbial pathogens. Paper disc diffusion and serial micro-dilution assays were performed for the determination of inhibition zone (DIZ) diameters and minimal inhibitory concentration, respectively. The Foeniculum vulgare essential oil showed the Diameter of Inhibition Zone (DIZ) ranging from 19.4 ± 0.07 - 26.4 ± 0.09 mm at a concentration level of 28 μg/disc in all the ten strains tested. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of essential oil against bacterial and fungal strains was obtained in the range of 7.0 - 56 μg/ml. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil is due to the presence of certain secondary plant metabolites such as terpenoids, steroids and flavonoids, esters and acids which are identified in the essential oil. The oil components can be further studied for their biological activity and overcome the problem of drug resistance in microbes.

The effect of photo-irradiation on the growth and ingredient composition of young green barley (<i>Hordeum vulgare</i>)

We clarified that photo-irradiation of young green barley from three different light sources, natural light, 100% red light-emitting diodes (R-LEDs), and a mixture of 90% red-LEDs + 10% blue-LEDs (RB-LEDs), had significantly different results in growth degree (weight and height) and in components of young green barley. Barley that has sprouted for 15 days after germination did not show any apparent difference in height in response to irradiation by the three tested light sources, but by the 20th day of sprouting the height showed a positive effect by R-LEDs irradiation. By 15 days of sprouting the barley had achieved the heaviest weight by natural light irradiation, while the barley irradiated by R-LEDs had made remarkable progress at 20 days of sprouting. On the other hand, the irradiation by RB-LEDs showed a suppressive tendency after 15 days or more. The amino acid content, as indicated by dry weight conversion, was greatest in the barley irradiated by RB-LEDs, followed by R-LEDs, and natural light, which showed that LEDs irradiation is effective. In addition, four cyanogenic glucosides were isolated, identified, and quantified, as they are components frequently assessed in barley research. With regard to vitamin E, R-LEDs irradiation increased γ-tocopherol. Our results indicate that irradiation by LEDs would be effective for the enhancement of the functionality of young green barley.

Differential Responses of Antioxidative System to Soil Water Shortage in Barley (<i>Hordeum vulgare</i>L.) Genotypes

Drought is one of the major factors limiting the yield and quality of crops in the world. The activity of antioxidative system to tolerate the drought stress is significant in plants. In the present study, the activities and isoform profiles of catalase (CАТ), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were analyzed in four barley genotypes grown under soil water restriction. Drought stress caused increase in the activities of CАТ and SOD in all studied genotypes, while APX activity decreased. The total GR activity increased substantially in genotypes K 2778 and St.Garabag 7 and decreased in No. 77 local and St.Pallidum 596 genotypes under conditions of severe water stress. No detectable differences were observed in the isoenzyme pattern (the appearance of a new isoenzymes and disappearance of another one) between control plants and those subjected to soil drought. However, intensification of corresponding isoforms in electrophoretic spectra was observed in stressed barley leaves relative to watered ones. The obtained results possibly suggest that antioxidant protection in barley plants under drought conditions could be attributed mainly to SOD and CAT.

Micropropagation and Acclimatization of Common Oregano (Origanum vulgare L. Subsp. vulgare) by Shoot Tip Culture

Origanum vulgare L. is a commercially valued species with remarkable biological properties. It is subject to over-exploitation practices that seriously threaten its sustainability for future generations. Thus, micropropagation serves as a tool for the protection and domestication of this species. In this study, we established an in vitro vegetative propagation protocol for Origanum vulgare. This is done through the axillary bud technique by carrying out various tests. Six culture media (MS, MSm, N30K, SD, SH and B5) were tested. Therefore, SD was chosen for the following experiments. Seven cytokinins (adenine (Ad), N6-(2-isopentenyl) (2ip), zeatin (Zeat), kinetin (Kin), benzyladenine (BAP), 1,3-diphenylurea (DPU) and thidiazuron (TDZ) at 5 concentrations (0.44, 1.33, 2.22, 3.11 and 4.44 μM/L) were evaluated. Thus, Kin at 3.11 μM allowed high regeneration of vitroplants, optimal elongation, total rooting of explants, maximum bud multiplication, and absence of hyperhydric explants. In fact, the integration of auxins (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)) into the culture medium and their combinations with 3.11 μM Kinetin contributed to the optimization of the root part. Thus, it was improved in particular in the case of 3.11 μM Kin and 6.27 μM IBA. Three polyamines (Putrescine, Spermidine and Spermine) at different concentrations (1.134, 3.402, 5.67, 7.938 and 11.34 μM/L) combined at 3.11 μM Kin and 6.27 μM IBA were tested. In fact, 1.304 μM putrescine was considered to be the most suitable for in vitro culture of explants, since it allowed optimal propagation of buds and roots, also a high rate of regeneration and rhizogenesis. GA3 at 1.15 μM combined with 3.11 μM Kin and 6.27 μM IBA permitted maximum bud multiplication. The acclimatization was carried out successfully using vitroplants showing good foliar and root development. Thus, three months after acclimatization, the seedlings were transferred into large pots under natural light and temperature conditions. Almost all acclimatized plants developed flowers in the first year between May and July.

Evaluation of hypolipidemic Marrubium vulgare effect in Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia in mice

Objective: To evaluate the hypocholesterolemic and hypotriglyceridemic activities of four Marrbium vulgare(M. vulgare) herb extracts using Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia in mice. Methods: Hyperlipidemia was developed by intraperitoneal injection of Triton(200 mg/kg body weight). The animals were divided into main four groups of eight mice each: normal control group, hyperlipidemic control group, hyperlipidemic plus tween-40 control and treated group. The fourth one was divided into four subgroups, petroleum ether extract group, chloroform extract group, ethyl acetate extract group and methanol extract treated group each of them contains two sub-sub group for treating animals with two doses at 0.1 and 0.25 LD50. Results: After 7 h and 24 h of treatment, the intragastric administration of all extracts caused a significant decrease of plasma total cholesterol. Triglyceride levels were also significantly lowered by all extracts while petroleum ether produced the lowest decreasing level. Similar results were observed for LDL-cholesterol concentrations. Furthermore, more polar extracts(methanol and ethyl acetate)-soluble fractions showed a significant ameliorative action on elevated atherogenic index(AI) and LDL/HDL-C ratios, while these atherogenic markers were not statistically suppressed by the chloroform and petroleum ether-soluble extract. Conclusion: The findings indicated that Marrubium may contain polar products able to lower plasma lipid concentrations and might be beneficial in treatment of hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.

Rescue effects of aqueous seed extracts of Foeniculum vulgare and Carum carvi against cadmium-induced hepatic, renal and gonadal damage in female albino rats

Objective: To investigate the protective effects of aqueous seed extracts of fennel"Foeniculum vulgare"(FVE) and caraway "Carum carvi"(CCE) on liver, kidney and reproductive organs in female rats against cadmium chloride(CC) intoxication.Methods: A total of 36 adult female rats were divided into six groups, six in each group.Control group(fed normal diet), CC-treated group(50 mg CC/kg diet), CCE-treated group(150 mg CCE/kg diet), CCE + CC group, FVE(150 mg/kg diet) and FVE + CC. One month later, all rats were sacrificed and all samples were collected at proestrus phase.Results: The toxic effects of CC were confirmed biochemically by significant increase of serum concentration of liver enzymes(P < 0.05), and creatinine(P < 0.001). Moreover,CC increased significantly the serum level of malondialdehyde(MDA) and decreased the total antioxidant capacity(TAC)(P < 0.001). In addition, serum concentrations of estrogen, progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) and luteinizing hormone(LH)were significantly decreased(P < 0.01). Histopathologically, CC-treated group revealed marked pathological changes in renal, hepatic, ovarian and uterine tissues. All toxic findings observed in liver and kidney with CC treatment were found to be ameliorated markedly after co-treatments with FVE or CCE. Furthermore, co-treatment of FVE with CC improved significantly all studied reproductive parameters(P < 0.01).Conclusions: Both FVE and CCE could be used as efficient treatments for liver and kidney against CC intoxication. Moreover, FVE could be utilized as a potent treatment to protect and improve female fertility from cadmium intoxication.

Origanum vulgare L.leaf extract alleviates finasteride-induced oxidative stress in mouse liver and kidney

Objective:To investigate the hepatorenoprotective effects of Origanum vulgare L.against finasteride-induced oxidative injury in the liver and kidney of mice.Methods:Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry(LC-ESI/MS)analysis was utilized to yield a fingerprint of Origanum vulgare polyphenolic constituents.Thirty BALB/c mice received 0.5 mL/day distilled water,finasteride(25 mg/kg/day for 10 d),and 100,200,or 400 mg/kg/day finasteride+Origanum vulgare extract with 6 mice per group for five weeks.On day 36,liver and kidney function as well as pro-and antiinflammatory(IFN-γ,IL-12,IL-6,TNF-α,IL-1β,and IL-10)cytokines were measured.The total antioxidant status,nitric oxide(NO),and malondialdehyde levels as well as the activities of NO synthase and catalase were also evaluated.Histopathological study was conducted to assess the effect of Origanum vulgare extract on finasteride-induced renal and hepatic toxicities.Results:Twenty-five major polyphenolic compounds were identified in the Origanum vulgare extract by LC-ESI/MS.Origanum vulgare extract,especially at 200 and 400 mg/kg/day doses,significantly improved liver and kidney biochemical indices,decreased inflammatory cytokines,increased total antioxidant status and NO synthase and catalase activities,as well as decreased plasma NO and malondialdehyde levels in a dose-dependent manner as compared to the finasteride group.Histopathological results further confirmed the protective effect of Origanum vulgare extract.Conclusions:Origanum vulgare extract ameliorates finasterideinduced hepatic and renal biochemical and histopathological alterations,and restores antioxidant/oxidant balance.

Model Examination for the Effect of Treading Stress on Young Green Barley (<i>Hordeum vulgare</i>)

Treading barley (“Mugifumi” in Japanese) is a barley culturing process that is unique and indispensable in Japan. Generally, roller machines or human feet are used to tread young barley several times (Figure 1). As a model examination, a stainless steel instrument was used for treading barley in this study (Figure 2(a)). Treading damages plants and decreases growth, such as the height and weight of aerial parts, which then recover gradually. In our study, the total amino acid contents increased with the treading stress. The treading stress induced a 1.7-fold increase in aspartic acid contents and an approximately 1.6-fold increase in glutamic acid, proline, cystine, and methionine contents. Isolation and purification suggested that the main components of the methanol-eluted fraction from the young green barley were six known phenolic compounds. Saponarin and lutonarin were the main components. The saponarin content was about 160 mg/g (methanol-soluble fraction) at 10 days after germination. We found that the higher antioxidant activity was due to the increased lutonarin/saponarin ratio from 10% to 24%. Therefore, our results suggest that treading stress is useful for young green barley.

Understanding the Mechanism of Gamete Release in <i>Sargassum vulgare</i>C. Agardh

Sargassum vulgare C. Agardh shows androgynous receptacles, each bearing on an average 12 unisexual conceptacles which open outside by ostiole, and wherein gametangia (antheridia or oogonia) lie interspersed with paraphyses. Since out-put of eggs is extremely low, 4 - 6 per female conceptacle, Sargassum sp. ensures its survival under all eco-physiological conditions. The released oogonium is “wrapped” in sulphated polysaccharide-rich wall layer known to provide protection against desiccation. Oogonia after being “extruded” out of ostiole, are “incubated” on receptacle, where they grow into eggs that are easily contacted by spermatozoids. Gamete release is synchronous and almost simultaneous ensuring high rates of fertilization. The release occurs on days falling near a full moon or new moon, during low tides when conceptacles lie exposed. Gamete release occurs first from upper conceptacles, which “house” mature gametangia while lower ones are still developing. This results in gamete release over an extended period of time. The zygote dispersal and propagule recruitment also show adaptations selectively advantageous for the alga.

Functional Property of Honey from <i>Echium vulgare</i>

Chemical property of honey from Echium vulgare was investigated. In comparison with other honey species, the con-tents of total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids were the highest. α-Amylase activity was also extremely high: about three to nine hundred times as much as those of other honey species. The antioxidative activity of honey was investigated using four different methods. Honey from E. vulgare showed the best performance in inhibiting lipid peroxidation and scavenging superoxide anion radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and DPPH radicals. Moreover, it exhibited stronger inhibition activity of ACE. It is known that higher antioxidative activity and scavenging activity against active oxygen species in honey species related to their colour. In the present study, however, it suggests that the phenolics in honey from E. vulgare with yellow gold colour might be the major active component responsible for the strong antioxidative activity and radical scavenging activity.