Wages and Salaries of Czech Men and Women at the Beginning of the Third Millennium and the Impact of the Economical Recession on Their Development

This paper deals with the development of the wage distribution in the Czech Republic since 2003, according to gender. It is a development of descriptive characteristics of location, differentiation and shape of wage distribution, but also the development of concentration characteristic of wage distribution. Gross monthly wage of Czech employees represents the variable under research. Emphasis is placed on changes in the development of wage distribution since 2009 in connection with the onset of economic recession. The economic crisis has greatly influenced the development of the wage distribution in the Czech Republic, wage growth virtually stopped at this time. Differences in the development of wage distribution between men and women in the Czech Republic are also under this research. Development of wage distribution has been studied by modelling the distribution. Three-parametric lognormal curves are served as a theoretical probability distribution whose parameters were estimated using the L-moment method of point estimate of parameters. Dependence of gross monthly wage on gender has been the subject of research as well. This dependence was researched using one-way analysis of variance. Forecast of wage distribution of men and women in the Czech Republic for the years 2012 and 2013 is included in this research.

Determinants of Wages and Labour Supply in the UK

We explore characteristics of the UK labour market with special emphasis on explanation of the existing wage inequalities, determinants of participation, and variation in the magnitude of hours of labour supplied among individuals. We explain up to 92 percent of variance in the wage rates from the supply side. Accuracy of the model is accounted by a variety of factors relevant to the labour market such as gender gaps, marital status, on and off the job training, fluency in English, and regional characteristics. The study is quite distinct, since it not only incorporates variables pertinent from the economic point of view, but also some quantified qualitative regressors relating to individuals’ opinions and political preferences. Interestingly, we find that the psychological profile of an individual has a very big influence over his decision on whether to participate, but once he joined the labour force his personal beliefs and opinions have no further impact on the probability of finding a job. The chance of being employed once participating depends mainly on the local labour market conditions. We also report unbiased and reliable estimate of labour supply elasticity based on British Household Panel Survey （BHPS） sample.

Impact of Prevailing Wages on the Cost among the Various Construction Trades

In 1997, the Ohio Senate passed Senate Bill 102 which established the Ohio School Facilities Commission as a separate agency to oversee the rebuilding projects of the public schools in Ohio. The bill also exempted the construction contractors from paying prevailing wages on these projects on the hypothesis that this exemption would lower the construction cost. The purpose of this study is to investigate this hypothesis through the statistical analysis of 8,093 bids received from the years 2000 through 2007 for the schools＇ construction. Union contractors who paid their workers union wages and non-union contractors who did not pay prevailing wages bid these projects. The hypothesis, that prevailing wage laws increased the construction cost, was tested by comparing the bids/SF （square foot） from both groups （union and nonunion） for the different construction trades. The study indicated that there was statistical significant difference between the bids/square foot for union contractors and the bids/square foot for non-union contractors for only the following trades： earthwork, existing conditions, plumbing, electrical and HVAC （heating, ventilation and air conditioning）. The averages of bids/SF from the union contractors were higher than those from the non-union contractors for earthwork, existing conditions and plumbing works, and the opposite for electrical and HVAC works. There was no statistical significant difference in the bids from the communications, concrete, conveying equipment, electronic safety and security, equipment, finishes, fire suppression, furnishings, masonry, openings, structural steel, thermal and moisture protection, plastics and composites and wood works.

Development of Wages and Salaries of Czech Employees During the Last Period by Educational Attainment and Forecasts for 2011 and 2012

This paper deals with the development of sample characteristics of wage distribution in recent years in the Czech Republic by the highest educational attainment. Gross monthly wage is the variable investigated. We distinguish the following scale of the highest educational attainment： primary and incomplete education, secondary education without GCSE, secondary education with GCSE, higher vocational and bachelor education and tertiary education. Forecasts of wage distribution have been developed for the next two years for all of these categories. Three-parametric lognormal curve formed the basis of the theoretical probability distribution. Parameter values of relevant three-parametric lognormal curves were then estimated using the method of L-moments of parameter estimation. Forecasts of sample values of L-moments were calculated using trend analysis of their past development and the parameters of three-parametric Iognormal curves for forecasts of wage distribution were calculated using the predicted values of the first three sample L-moments. We have obtained the forecasts of wage distribution by the highest educational attainment on the basis of these probability density functions.

Real Interest Rates,Real Wages and Economic Restructuring—Analysis Based on Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium(DSGE)

On the basis of research conducted by Long and Plosser(1983),this paper carries out an in-depth analysis on the relationship between real interest rates,real wage,and macro-economy and economic structure by simulating a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium(DSGE) model and comes to the following conclusions:(1) Increasing the level of real interest rates will expand the share of consumption in GDP,improve the macroeconomic structure,and promote steady economic development;(2) Increasing the level of real wages will enhance economic growth but will not change the economic structure of consumption and investments;(3) Increasing wages will enhance economic growth and expand its share in national income;(4) Increasing wages will not lower output level but will be favorable to the improvement of economic structure.Therefore,this paper argues for interest rates liberalization to achieve long-term,steady economic development in China.

Growing Wages and Changing Demand for Workers in Chinese Enterprises

Taking advantage of company survey data,this paper examines the responsiveness of enterprises in manufacturing sectors to the recent labor market changes characterized by surging wages and shrinking unskilled workers.The result shows that the labor demand elasticity with regard to output is substantial.In other words,growing manufacturing will keep creating jobs and intensify labor scarcity in China.The wage elasticity is-0.40 for unskilled workers and-0.53 for skilled workers,which indicates that Chinese companies are quite responsive to the recent labor market changes.There exists a kind of substitution effect between skilled and unskilled workers,however,the magnitude of elasticity remains small.To promote economic upgrading in China's labor market,institutional and industrial policies should encourage companies to be responsive to the warning signals from the market of production factor.

The Effects of Greenhouse Gases Regulation on Wages and Rents: Policy Issues and General Equilibrium Analysis

The stringency of environmental policy is likely to change the gains of economic agents. Using a general equilibrium model and an assumption that capital-intensive industries tend to be intensive emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG), we find that a stricter GHG emission scheme will reduce the rent for capital owners but increase the wage for workers. This effect could motivate capital owners or workers to oppose or support a stricter GHG policy. The paper also empirically assesses the model’s key assumption by using production input (capital stock and labor), output, and GHG emission data from U.S industrial sectors. The regression result supports a strong positive relationship between the capital-labor ratio and the pollution-output ratio. Therefore, the theoretical analysis is relevant to the actual economy.

Effects of Changing Relative Value of Mininimum Wages on Wage Distribution in China:Analysis Based on County-Level Data

On the basis of extending Lee's(1999) model, this paper resolves the problem of biased division in the specification of equation and employs Urban Household Survey(UHS) data,China Household Income Project(CHIP) data and county-level minimum wage data collected by authors to investigate the wage distribution effects of change in the effective minimum wages measured by relative value. The result shows that the effective minimum wage will exert a significant spillover effect on wage distribution at the40 th percentile and below, which is favorable to reducing wage gaps at the bottom. This conclusion holds true under various robustness tests. However, the shrinking effective minimum wage has created a downward drag on wages, thus widening wage gaps at the bottom. The shrinking effective minimum wage contributed 150%,53.8%,45.5% and16.7% to the wage gaps at the 10 th, 20 th, 30 th and 40 th percentiles compared with the 50 th percentile. Therefore, the key to ensuring the effectiveness of minimum wages lies in the implementation of an automatic adjustment mechanism correlated with macroeconomic indicators. Compliance with minimum wages must be guaranteed and change in minimum wages must be measured with relative value.

Hourly Wage and the Likelihood of Stealing an Item

Researchers have extensively explored the impact of wages on individuals’ decisions to engage in property crimes. While most of these studies in the past have relied on macro-level data to investigate the relationship between crime rates and hourly wages, this paper takes a novel approach by utilizing micro-level data to examine the influence of hourly wages on the likelihood of stealing an item valued at least $50. The results obtained from the estimations reveal that an increase in hourly wage leads to a decrease in the probability of theft, all other factors being held constant. Further estimation by gender revealed that hourly wages given to both male and female have no bearing on the decision to steal. Additionally, the analysis of the differences in theft probabilities across gender and race demonstrates that males consistently exhibit a higher likelihood of engaging in theft when compared to females across various racial groups.

Labor's Economic Conditions in the Late-19th-century America

This article generally studies American workers’ economic conditions in the late nineteenth century. Through the examination of their poor living conditions, the author aims to expose the dark side of America in the period of Industrialization.

薪金、奖金、罚金

一、薪金1.wage工资,工钱。一般按每小时、每天或每周计算,以蓝领工人、半技术工人为对象,通常会给现金;此外,该词还用来泛指工资这一概念。使用时多用复数形式。例: (1)The postal workers have asked for wage rise of＄5 a week.邮政工人要求周薪提高5美元。(2)current wage system现行工资制度2.salary多指“月薪”或“年俸”,以公职人员、公司职员、白领职工等为对象,通常通过支票付给。例: The union leaders enjoy great prestige and authorityand large salaries.工会领袖享有很高威望和很大权力,而且领取丰厚的薪水。3.stipend专指酬劳牧师、教师、行政官员的俸给。例如:

Wage and Income Distribution in China:Review and Outlook

Under the planned economy,China’s distribution relations were relations among the state,state-run enterprises,employees and the collective economy;relations between heavy industry and light industry;and relations between cities and the countryside.After China’s transition to a market-oriented economy,the distribution relations among the state,state-run enterprises and employees evolved into distribution relations between the government,enterprises and households;the distribution relations between heavy industry and light industry evolved into distribution relations between the state sector and the private sector;and the distribution relations between cities and the countryside evolved into distribution relations between original urban dwellers and migrant populations.Wage system reform was carried out throughout the transition of these three types of distribution relations.Income distribution contradictions in China,which are a problem left over from history and intrinsic to the market-based economy,eased over the years.Some people and regions achieved prosperity,and urban-rural and interregional income gaps narrowed.However,widening household income gaps pose barriers to China’s economic sustainability and vision of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects.Mechanisms to promote common prosperity are incomplete and inadequate.The disequilibrium of functional distribution is an important cause of these income inequalities.The overall wage level of ordinary workers is low.In the future,China'should give full play to the decisive role of the market in primary distribution to ensure proper return to all types of factors,and enhance redistribution to achieve common prosperity for all its people.

Urban natural gas demand and factors analysis in China:Perspectives of price and income elasticities

Urban natural gas is becoming the main sector driving China’s natural gas consumption growth in recent years.This study explores the impacts of urban natural gas price,wage,socioeconomic determinants,and meteorological conditions on urban natural gas demand in China over 2006-2017.Furthermore,this study also analyzes the potential regional heterogeneity and asymmetry in the impacts of gas price and income on China’s urban gas demand.Empirical results reveal that:(1)The increased gas price can significantly reduce the urban gas demand,and the average income level may effectively promote the gas demand,also,a strong switching effect exists between electricity and natural gas in urban China;(2)these impacts are heterogeneous in regions among China,urban natural gas demand is largely affected by the gas price in regions with high-gas-price and by income in regions with low-gas-price;and(3)the impact of gas price on urban gas consumption is consistent in regions with different urban natural gas consumption,while the impact of income is asymmetric.This study further provides several policy implications for improving the urban natural gas industry in China.

Post-industrial Economic Restructuring and Wage Inequality in Urban China, 2003-2015: A Sectoral Perspective

Income inequality in urban China has attracted growing attention from China’s urban researchers and policy makers. Whereas many studies have interrogated the pattern and process of the income gap in Chinese cities undergoing the institutional transformation from plan to market, relatively little is known about how such unequal distribution of income is related to China’s ongoing structural transformation toward a post-industrial economy. Drawing on a decomposition methodology based on the Theil index, this study aimed to address this lacuna through an empirical investigation of China’s urban wage inequality from a sectoral perspective. Our empirical study identified the low-wage manufacturing sector and the high-wage producer services sector as the two biggest contributors to urban wage inequality in China. Urban wage inequality within the producer services was found to be caused by the spatial concentration of a disproportionate number of high-paying jobs in a few developed, high-tier city-regions on the eastern coast. Our empirical findings have important implications for the formulation of policies to address the income inequality that plagues China’s continuing urbanization.

A Preliminary Study on Modeling Stability of Planning Inventory and Incentive Effects

The incentive effects and dynamic aspects of the inventory system were discussed in this paper. The wage policy was regarded as a factor to influence workers' thinking of their action. A multiple objective problem was constructed for the owners and the workers. At the same time, the planning stability is considered in the presented model. Since the process speed is decided by the dynamic demand of production or the interior system itself, two situations were discussed in this paper.

An Empirical Analysis of Employment Stability and the Wage Gap of Rural Migrants in China Based on Quantile Regression

Under the background of accelerated integrated urban-rural development, this paper offers an analysis on the short-term employment of rural migrants in China and resulting wage gap between long-term and short-term rural migrants. On the basis of correcting for sample selection problems arising from labor market participation and short-term employment, rural migrants＇ wage function is estimated using quantile regression method, and wage gap between long-term and short-term rural migrants is decomposed using MM method. Our empirical results suggest that those with a higher level of education, training experience and local employment recommended by family relations or in formal labor market are more likely to secure long-term labor contract,＂ region and education have significant contributions to the wage of rural migrants,＂ rural migrants of both long- and short-term contract types have great gaps at the bottom of salary distribution; and there exists a sticky floor effect in wage difference of rural migrants. These results have important policy implications in enhancing employment stability of rural migrants, improving income distribution equity, speeding up the process of urbanization, and balancing regional development.

Changes of Wage Structures in Chinese Public and Private Sectors： 1995-2007

Using CHIP （Chinese Household Income Project Survey） data and the sample selection bias corrected wage function model, this paper estimated changes in wage structure in China by ownership types （SOEs, COEs, FEs, and PEs） in 1995 and 2007. The major conclusions are as follows. First, effects of education on wage levels in SOEs and FEs become greater, while education effects decrease in SOEs and PEs under economic transition periods; firm-specific human capital becomes more important in the wage determination mechanism along with market-oriented reforms in SOEs, PEs, and FEs; age effect decreases in SOEs and COEs, but it becomes greater in PEs and FEs. Second, there exist wage structure differences between sectors by wage distributions. For example, in 2007, in SOEs, education return rates are higher for the low-wage and middle-wage groups, and the effect is the highest at the 40th percentile. However in COEs and FEs, education return rates are higher for the high-wage groups, and the effect is the highest at the 70th percentile in COEs and at the 70th percentile in FEs. Tenure effects are greater in the middle-wage groups （40th-80th） in SOEs, COEs, and FEs, and age effects are greater in the low-wage groups （5th-30th） in SOEs, FEs, and PEs.

A Review of Research on the Employment Effect of Artificial Intelligence Applications

Based on the concept of artificial intelligence(AI)and the summary of existing research methods,this essay reviews the theoretical and empirical research into AI’s impact on industrial distribution,jobs,wages and other aspects in the field of employment.The essay finds that AI technology accelerates job polarization in the labor market and causes wage inequality during this process while taking over some occupations and promoting the flow of labor among different industries.In the long run,the substitution and creation effects will coexist for the long term,and the creation effects will exercise increasingly obvious influence;wage inequality can be compensated by long-term social policies;job polarization will not last for long;and workers’flow between industries is essentially a result of matching labor skills with task needs after technological changes.More scholars believe that the impact of artificial intelligence on employment in the future is controllable,and the key is in the broad and effective human-computer cooperation facilitated by the improvement of labor’s skill levels through education and training.

Modelling of Wage and Income Distributions Using the Method of L-Moments

Commonly used statistical procedure to describe the observed statistical sets is to use their conventional moments or cumulants. When choosing an appropriate parametric distribution for the data set is typically that parameters of a parametric distribution are estimated using the moment method of creating a system of equations in which the sample conventional moments lay in the equality of the corresponding moments of the theoretical distribution. However, the moment method of parameter estimation is not always convenient, especially for small samples. An alternative approach is based on the use of other characteristics, which the author calls L-moments. L-moments are analogous to conventional moments, but they are based on linear combinations of order statistics, i.e., L-statistics. Using L-moments is theoretically preferable to the conventional moments and consists in the fact that L-moments characterize a wider range of distribution. When estimating from sample L-moments, L-moments are more robust to the presence of outliers in the data. Experience also shows that, compared to conventional moments, L-moments are less prone to bias of estimation. Parameter estimates obtained using L-moments are mainly in the case of small samples often even more accurate than estimates of parameters made by maximum likelihood method. Using the method of L-moments in the case of small data sets from the meteorology is primarily known in statistical literature. This paper deals with the use of L-moments in the case for large data sets of income distribution （individual data） and wage distribution （data are ordered to form of interval frequency distribution of extreme open intervals）. This paper also presents a comparison of the accuracy of the method of L-moments with an accuracy of other methods of point estimation of parameters of parametric probability distribution in the case of large data sets of individual data and data ordered to form of interval frequency distribution.

How Does Technological Progress Affect Employment and Wage Differences in China＇s Information Industry

Combining the development status of information industry in China and based on theoretical discussions on labor demand and supply as well as the comprehensive analysis on endogenous technological progress and exogenous educational quality, this paper concludes that the technological progress of information industry in China is skill- biased, i.e. technological progress of information industry increases the demand for skilled labor while decreases the demand for unskilled labor, and aggravates the wage difference between these two types of labor. Due to the effect of educational quality, the ratio of skilled labor employment to unskilled labor employment will reach a dynamic equilibrium and the wage difference between skilled labor and unskilled labor will not increase continuously. This paper then proves the foregoing conclusion with data of information industry in 26 provinces （autonomous region, municipality）. Focusing on typical skill-intensive information industry, this paper mainly studies the influence of educational quality, which not only complements the theoretical analysis on dual effects of technological progress on employment, but also provides feasible and practical basis to policies promoting the development of technological progress and full employment in China.