Mapping the fallowed area of paddy fields on Sanjiang Plain of Northeast China to assist water security assessments

Rice growth requires a large amount of water,and planting rice will increase the contradiction between supply and demand of water resources.Paddy field fllowing is important for the sustainable development of an agricultural region,but it remains a great challenge to accurately and quickly monitor the extent and area of fallowed paddy fields.Paddy fields have unique physical features associated with paddy rice during the flooding and transplanting phases.By comparing the differences in phenology before and after paddy field fllowing,we proposed a phenology-based fallowed paddy field mapping algorithm.We used the Google Earth Engine(GEE)cloud computing platform and Landsat 8 images to extract the fllowed paddy field area on Sanjiang Plain of China in 2018.The results indicated that the Landsat8,GEE,and phenology-based fllowed paddy field mapping algorithm can effectively support the mapping of fallowed paddy fields on Sanjiang Plain of China.Based on remote sensing monitoring,the total fallowed paddy field area of Sanjiang Plain is 91543 ha.The resultant fallowed paddy field map is of high accuracy,with a producer(user)accuracy of 83%(81%),based on validation using ground-truth samples.The Landsat-based map also exhibits high consistency with the agricultural statistical data.We estimated that paddy field fallowing reduced irigation water by 384-521 million cubic meters on Sanjiang Plain in 2018.The research results can support subsidization grants for fallowed paddy fields,the evaluation of fallowed paddy field effects and improvement in subsequent fallowed paddy field policy in the future.

Climate change and water security in the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains

Water security is under threat worldwide from climate change. A warming climate would accelerate evaporationand cryosphere melting, leading to reduced water availability and unpredictable water supply. However, thewater crisis in the Northern Slope of Tianshan Mountains(NSTM) faces dual challenges because water demandsforfast-growing urban areas have put heavy pressure on water resources. The mountain-oasis-desert system featuresglacier-fed rivers that sustain intensive water use in the oasis and end in the desert as fragile terminal lakes.The complex balance between water conservation and economic development is subtle. This paper investigateschanges in hydroclimatic variables and water security-related issues on the NSTM. The spatiotemporal variationsin glaciers, climatic variables, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, groundwater, surface water, human water use, andstreamflow were analyzed for the past four decades. The results show that temperature in the NSTM exhibitedan apparent upward trend with a more significant warming rate in the higher altitude regions. Glacier massloss and shrinkage was strong. The average annual streamflow increased from 1980-1989 to 2006–2011 at mosthydrological stations. The monthly dynamics of surface water area showed notable variability at both inter-annual and seasonal scales, revealing the impacts of both natural and anthropogenic drivers on surface wateravailability in the region. The terrestrial water storage anomaly showed a decreasing trend, which might berelated to groundwater pumping for irrigation. Human water use for agriculture and industry grew with theincrease in cultivated land area and gross domestic product (GDP). The increased agricultural water use wasstrongly associated with the expansion of oases. It is unclear whether water availability would remain high underfuture climatic and hydrological uncertainties, posing challenges to water management. In the context of rapidurban growth and climate change, balancing water for humans and nature is vital in achieving the SustainableDevelopment Goals (SDGs) in NSTM. This study provides a baseline understanding of the interplay among water,climate change, and socio-economic development in NSTM. It would also shed light on wise water managementunder environmental changes for other rapidly developing mountain-oasis-desert systems worldwide.

Application of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Food and Water Security in the Semi-Arid Turkana County, Kenya

Weather extremes negatively affect socioeconomic developments in arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) and increase vulnerability of residents to food and water insecurity. Thus, communities adapt to such extremes of weather using Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and/or Modern Technologies. Modern farming technologies and land resource developments in ASALs have in past ignored TEK, and in most cases led to undesired outcomes. It’s against this backdrop that this study was conceived to assess TEK among the Turkana people, its application and contribution to food and water security. The research adopted a cross-sectional social survey in collecting data from Central Turkana Sub-County residents. The study revealed that the Turkana people possess vast knowledge related to their environment;that this TEK plays a significant role in food production, preservation and in natural resource management. For instance, in 82% of the respondents use TEK in enhancing livestock production through the selection of livestock species that are suitable and drought tolerant;over 70% of them use TEK in reducing risk associated with livestock losses due to prolonged droughts. Further, TEK influenced the development and conservation of the water resources (r = 0.631;p < 0.01) including siting boreholes and wells. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.755;p < 0.01) between TEK and food security. TEK should be incorporated into the decision-making processes involving development projects within the ASALs.

Water Security Needs What Ought to Be Done to Increase the Future Water Security as a Fundamental Base for Social, Economic and Political Stability—The Case of Jordan

This study discusses the present water security situation in Jordan and delineates the required policies and programs to reach at a more robust and resilient water security situation. Although Jordan has achieved much in securing the different components of its water sector system, some components have still to be adequately addressed and others strengthened. Increasing the available water resources, which is practically only possible by desalinating sea water at Aqaba under sole Jordanian sovereignty, is found to be the most important and vital issue in improving the country’s water security situation. It improves the security issues of providing dearly needed additional water, releases the overexploited aquifers and saves them from depletion and quality deterioration, allows introducing new industries to Jordan, de-sharpens the conflict on the shared water resources with Jordan’s neighboring countries and is expected to render these conflicts to a problem of royalty on water resources and not as it is at present a social, economic, human, environmental and political conflict. Desalination will also make Jordan more resilient to climate change. Infrastructure security must be strengthened in Jordan both against natural hazards and against intended sabotage and damage. Water quality protection from pollution and deterioration has still to be adequately addressed requiring strengthening of laws and regulations and their application. The already delineated surface and groundwater protection zones have to be strictly adhered when licensing human activities in addition to implementing cybersecurity best practices. In addition, technology-dependent management tools have to be strongly advanced using integrated water resources management to ensure sustainable resource management, detection and repair of physical water losses and illegal water tapings, pricing water at its opportunity cost, irrigation modernization, strict environmental impacts assessment and application wherever water resources and water infrastructures are involved, and strengthening of training and management programs.

Sustainability Assessment of the Groundwater Quality in the Khoyrasole Block, Birbhum District, West Bengal to Achieve Rural Water Security

In order to attain the water security goal, specifically in highly developingareas, delineation of pure and sustainable water resources is of utmostpriority. In the present study, a preliminary investigation of the groundwaterchemistry was carried out. This was followed by assessing the suitabilityof groundwater to be used as an alternative and reliable resource for publicuse in the Khoyrasole block, Birbhum district, India. Altogether 15(fifteen)samples of groundwater, were collected from bore wells spread well overthe Khoyrasole block have been considered. After completing the chemicalanalysis of the groundwater samples, the study revealed the quality ofgroundwater. The spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameterssuch as pH, Total Dissolved solids (TDS), Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium,Sodium, Potassium, Iron, Chloride, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Sulphate,Nitrate and Fluoride have also been studied. High to very high levels ofiron and fluoride have been observed to be present in 67% and53% of thesamples respectively. Based upon the calculated parameters like SAR,MAR, PI and Chloro Alkaline Indices, groundwater of Khoyrasole blockis majorly suitable for the purpose of agriculture and irrigation. Plotting ofionic scatter plots and geochemical facies also indicate the water samplesto be of “fresh water” category, with no dominant cation or anion playing aselectively dominant role in influencing the groundwater chemistry in thestudy area.

Intuitionistic fuzzy DEMATEL for developing causal relationship of water security

Purpose–This study aims to develop a cause-effect relationship between criteria that contribute to water security using the Intuitionistic Fuzzy-Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory(IF-DEMATEL)method.Differently from the typical DEMATEL which utilizes crisp numbers,this modification introduces intuitionistic fuzzy numbers(IFNs)to enhance judgments in a group decision-making environment.In particular,the linguistic variables used in IF-DEMATEL are defined using the concept of three-tuple of IFNs.Design/methodology/approach–Data with the linguistic variable“influence”were collected from a group of experts in water security via personalunstructured interviews.Seven water security criteria are considered in this study.Computational software was employed to execute the computational procedures of the IF-DEMATEL method.It is anticipated that by taking into account the hesitation degree of IFNs will reflect the scenario in real life,which could lead to precise decision-making.Findings–Theresultsshowthat“Over-Abstraction”,“SaltwaterIntrusion”and“LimitedInfrastructures”are the cause criteria that contribute to water security.In addition,the relationship map of influence shows that“Water Pollution”and“Rapid Urbanization”are the most vulnerable criteria as these two criteria are most easily affected by other criteria in a unidirectional relation.Practicalimplications–It is anticipated that these findings will serve as useful references for water security management and policymakers.Originality/value–The present study makes a noteworthy contribution to the modification of DEMATEL where three-tuple of intuitionistic fuzzy numbers are considered in the computations.The present study also provides additional evidence with respect to factors that contribute to water security.

Evaluation of regional water security using water poverty index

Water security is a widely concerned issue in the world nowadays.A new method,water poverty index(WPI),was applied to evaluate the regional water security.Twelve state farms in Heilongjiang Province,Northeastern China were selected to evaluate water security status based on the data of 2006 using WPI and mean deviation grading method.The method of WPI includes five key indices:resources(R),access(A),capacity(C),utilization(U)and environment(E).Each key index further consists of several sub-indices.According to the results of WPI,the grade of each farm was calculated by using the method of mean deviation grading.Thus,the radar images can be protracted of each farm.From the radar images,the conclusions can be drawn that the WPI values of Farm 853 and Hongqiling are under very safe status,while that of Farm Raohe is under safe status,those of Farms Youyi,597,852,291 and Jiangchuan are under moderate safe status,that of Farm Beixing is under low safe status and those of Farm Shuangyashan,Shuguang and Baoshan are under unsafe status.The results from this study can provide basic information for decision making on rational utilization of water resources and regulations for regional water safety guarantee system.

A review of science–policy interface for water governance in the Caspian Sea

Science and policy have been interlinked for decades and perform essential nexus conditions in the governing aspects of environmental scenarios.This review paper examines the present challenges in the science–policy interface in terms of water governance in the Caspian Sea and identifies effective conditions that may be used in the current context to enhance the mechanism.The evaluation of the science–policy link in the water policy of the Caspian Sea reveals a gap between knowledge producer and governance system,impeding the translation of scientific information into action.Complicated and context-dependent solutions make it challenging to establish effective science–policy processes in the Caspian Sea water governance settings.Establishing a common governing authority,implementing water and resource management regulations,and protecting the natural environment through legal frameworks are crucial steps to address these concerns and ensure sustainable development.Collaboration among coastal states is essential in environmental,economic,and social aspects of regional development.However,the lack of a comprehensive approach,coherent activities,and effective utilization of national and regional power has hindered efforts to halt the environmental degradation of the Caspian Sea.Local governments need to recognize their responsibility to protect and utilize the Caspian Sea for present and future generations,considering both environmental and human security.The interlinkage of the Caspian Sea water governance with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)water governance principles offers a framework for policymakers to assess gaps and make necessary amendments to existing mechanisms.Effective science–policy interaction,engagement of diverse stakeholders,institutionalizing agreements,and addressing collective action issues are critical for successful water governance.

Analysis of the Status and Rational Allocation of Water Resources in China in View of the New Era

This paper examines the current status of water resource management and conservation in China,along with strategies to address the water resource crisis.Given the current situation,the paper highlights issues such as incomplete legal mechanisms,limited environmental awareness among enterprises,and insufficient government investment.To ad-dress these challenges,the paper proposes a series of strategies,including improving the ecological environment,enhanc-ing production techniques,strengthening management systems,rationalizing water resource allocation,and implementing water-saving measures in both industrial and agricultural production.These strategies serve to achieve sustainable water resource management,reduce water pollution,and effectively tackle the pressing water resource issues faced in China currently.

Protection Planning for Rural Centralized Drinking Water Source Areas in Chongqing

Protection planning is made for rural centralized drinking water source areas according to current situations of rural drinking water and existing problems of centralized drinking water source areas in Chongqing,and in combination with survey,analysis and evaluation of urban-rural drinking water source areas in whole city.There are engineering measures and non-engineering measures,to guarantee drinking water security of rural residents,improve rural ecological environment,realize sustainable use of water resource,and promote sustainable development of society.Engineering measures include conservation and protection of water resource,ecological restoration,isolation,and comprehensive control of pointsource and area-source pollution.Non-engineering measures include construction of monitoring system for drinking water source area,construction of security information system for rural centralized drinking water source area,and construction of emergency mechanism for water pollution accidents in rural water source areas.

The hydrosocial cycle in rapidly urbanizing watersheds

Water is the essential resource of the 21st century where innovative water management strategies are needed to improve water security.This paper examines three case studies that exemplify the global water crisis,situated in rapidly urbanizing watersheds:Nairobi River Basin,Kenya;Citarum River Basin,Indonesia;and Addis Ababa River Basin,Ethiopia.Each of these watersheds are implementing large-scale water management strategies inclusive of local communities and regional governments to address water quality and waste management issues.The hydrosocial cycle(Linton,2010)provides a framework to investigate the social,technical and physical aspects of water flows.Using the hydrosocial cycle as an organizing framework,these watersheds are examined to highlight how water security underpins water justice.The issues of gender and inequity are often overlooked in larger policy,development,and infrastructure discussions where technical requirements,restoration management,and engineering solutions obscure power inequities.Projects are compared to assess the implementation of the hydrosocial cycle through a discussion of social power and structure,technology and infrastructure,and the materiality of water in each location.This comparison reveals a dependence on large-scale technical projects with limited community engagement,and a need for science-based river restoration management.Recommendations are provided to improve and address holistic water management.

A meta-analysis of global crop water productivity of three leading world crops(wheat,corn,and rice)in the irrigated areas over three decades

The overarching goal of this study was to perform a comprehensive metaanalysis of irrigated agricultural Crop Water Productivity(CWP)of the world’s three leading crops:wheat,corn,and rice based on three decades of remote sensing and non-remote sensing-based studies.Overall,CWP data from 148 crop growing study sites(60 wheat,43 corn,and 45 rice)spread across the world were gathered from published articles spanning 31 different countries.There was overwhelming evidence of a significant increase in CWP with an increase in latitude for predominately northern hemisphere datasets.For example,corn grown in latitude 40–50°had much higher mean CWP(2.45 kg/m^(3))compared to mean CWP of corn grown in other latitudes such as 30–40°(1.67 kg/m^(3))or 20–30°(0.94 kg/m^(3)).The same trend existed for wheat and rice as well.For soils,none of the CWP values,for any of the three crops,were statistically different.However,mean CWP in higher latitudes for the same soil was significantly higher than the mean CWP for the same soil in lower latitudes.This applied for all three crops studied.For wheat,the global CWP categories were low(≤0.75 kg/m^(3)),medium(>0.75 to<1.10 kg/m^(3)),and high CWP(≥1.10 kg/m^(3)).For corn the global CWP categories were low(≤1.25 kg/m^(3)),medium(>1.25 to≤1.75 kg/m^(3)),and high(>1.75 kg/m^(3)).For rice the global CWP categories were low(≤0.70 kg/m^(3)),medium(>0.70 to≤1.25 kg/m^(3)),and high(>1.25 kg/m^(3)).USA and China are the only two countries that have consistently high CWP for wheat,corn,and rice.Australia and India have medium CWP for wheat and rice.India’s corn,however,has low CWP.Egypt,Turkey,Netherlands,Mexico,and Israel have high CWP for wheat.Romania,Argentina,and Hungary have high CWP for corn,and Philippines has high CWP for rice.All other countries have either low or medium CWP for all three crops.Based on data in this study,the highest consumers of water for crop production also have the most potential for water savings.These countries are USA,India,and China for wheat;USA,China,and Brazil for corn;India,China,and Pakistan for rice.For example,even just a 10%increase in CWP of wheat grown in India can save 6974 billion liters of water.This is equivalent to creating 6974 lakes each of 100 m^(3)in volume that leads to many benefits such as acting as‘water banks’for lean season,recreation,and numerous ecological services.This study establishes the volume of water that can be saved for each crop in each country when there is an increase in CWP by 10%,20%,and 30%.