Boulder-induced form roughness and skin shear stresses in a gravel-bed stream

Boulder spacing in mountain rivers and near-wake flow zones within the boulder array is very useful for fish habitat and growth of aquatic organisms.The present study aims to investigate how the boulder array and spacing influence the near-bed flow structures in a gravel-bed stream.Boulders are staggered over a gravel-bed stream with three different inter-boulder spacing namely(a)large(b)medium and(c)small spacing.An acoustic Doppler velocimeter was used for flow measurements in a rectangular channel and the results were compared with those acquired from numerical simulation.The time-averaged velocity profiles at the near-wake flow zones of boulders experience maximum flow retardation which is an outcome of the boulder-induced form roughness.The ratio of velocity differences associated to form and skin roughness and its positive magnitude reveals the dominance of form roughness closest to the boulders.Form roughness computed is 1.75 to 2 times higher than the skin roughness at the near-wake flow region.In particular,the collective immobile boulders placed at different inter-boulder spacings developed high and low bed shear stresses closest to the boulders.The low bed shear stresses characterised by a secondary peak developed at the trough location of the boulders is attributed to the skin shear stress.Further,the spatial averaging of time-averaged flow quantities gives additional impetus to present an improved illustration of fluid shear stresses.The formation of form-induced shear stress is estimated to be 17%to 23%of doubleaveraged Reynolds shear stress and partially compensates for the damping of time-averaged Reynolds shear stress in the interfacial sub-layer.The quadrant analysis of spatial velocity fluctuations depicts that the form-induced shear stresses are dominant in the interfacial sub-layer and have no significance above the gravel-bed surface.

Evaluation and optimization of blasting approaches to reducing oversize boulders and toes in open-pit mine

A new blasting approach of combined blastholes with different diameters is proposed to solve the problems of oversize boulders and rock toes in open-pit mine. A non-ideal detonation model and a statistical damage constitutive model are implemented in dynamic finite element analysis to investigate the formation mechanism of oversize boulders and toes. The damage distribution and evolution process of rock blasting fragmentation is simulated, and the scheme is further optimized. Numerical analysis results showed that pocket charges and satellite blastholes can only improve bench top fragmentation, but they cannot reduce the oversize in the middle and bottom of bench as well as the toe problem. The new blasting approach of combined blastholes with different diameters can effectively reduce the oversize boulders and toes as well as the production costs.

Dynamic impact of boulders on different types of concrete dam

Concrete dams are reliable when subjected to static loads such as earth pressure and water pressure.However,the dam failure would be abrupt and catastrophic if it is impacted by boulders.This study simulated the dynamic response of flat dam,concave dam,and convex dam under the impact of boulders by using ANSYS/LS-DYNA finite element software.In the numerical simulation,the strain rate effect under the impact load is considered,and Holmquist-Johnson-Cook(HJC)model-a dynamic damage constitutive model is applied to concrete materials.Results show that the peak impact force of concave dam is minimum.Meanwhile,for different dam types(flat dam,concave dam,and convex dam)and impactor velocities(5,10,and 15 m/s),the impact force fluctuates with the height of the impact point and it reaches the maximum value when the height of the impact point is 2/3 of the dam height.Numerical simulation mainly considers different masses and velocities and obtains empirical formulae of impact force for three dam types.The established empirical formula for the flat dam is compared with the existing classical formula and several similar experimental tests.It was found that the newly empirical formulae are reasonable and effective,and it provides design suggestions for similar concrete dams.

Prediction of blast boulders in open pit mines via multiple regression and artificial neural networks

The most important objective of blasting in open pit mines is rock fragmentation.Prediction of produced boulders(oversized crushed rocks) is a key parameter in designing blast patterns.In this study,the amount of boulder produced in blasting operations of Golegohar iron ore open pit mine,Iran was predicted via multiple regression method and artificial neural networks.Results of 33 blasts in the mine were collected for modeling.Input variables were:joints spacing,density and uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock,burden,spacing,stemming,bench height to burden ratio,and specific charge.The dependent variable was ratio of boulder volume to pattern volume.Both techniques were successful in predicting the ratio.In this study,the multiple regression method was superior with coefficient of determination and root mean squared error values of 0.89 and 0.19,respectively.

A 3-D DDA damage analysis of brick masonry buildings under the impact of boulders in mountainous areas

In mountainous areas, geological disasters carrying large boulders can cause severe damage to the widely used masonry buildings due to the high impact forces. To better understand the damage of brick masonry buildings under the impact of boulders, a "block-joint" model is developed using threedimensional discontinuous deformation analysis(3-D DDA) to simulate the behaviour of the "brick-mortar" structure. The "block-joint" model is used to capture not only the large displacement and deformation of individual bricks but also the large-scale sliding and opening along the mortar between the bricks. The linear elastic constitutive model is applied to account for the non-plastic deformation behaviour of brick materials. Furthermore, the mechanical characteristics of the mortar are represented using the Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager criteria. To propose safe structural design schemes and effective reinforcement for brick masonry buildings, seven construction techniques are considered, includingdifferent grades of brick and mortar, effective shear areas and reinforced members. The proposed 3-D DDA model is used to analyse the velocity distribution and the key point displacements of the brick masonry building under the impact of boulders. The results show that upgrading the brick and mortar, increasing the wall thickness, making full use of the wall thickness, and adding a circular beam and structural column are very effective approaches for improving the impact resistance of brick masonry buildings.

The Effects of Protruding Rock Boulders in Regulating Sediment Intrusion within the Hyporheic Zone of Mountain Streams

Excessive sedimentation in mountain stream ecosystems is a critical environmental problem due to the clogging of streambeds by sediment particles within the hyporheic zone,with detrimental effects on fish spawning habitat.In this research,the effects of an array of boulders in regulating the intrusion of incoming sand within a gravel substrate were evaluated by performing detailed experiments in a laboratory flume.A unique experimental setup and two different sampling techniques were utilized for measuring the infiltrated sand within the gravel bed under two bed shear stress conditions(moderate vs.high).For comparison purposes,experiments were performed without and with the presence of partially submerged to the flow(protruding) boulders,which is typical for the average flow conditions found in mountain streams.Results indicated that sand infiltrated primarily in the upper part of the gravel bed creating a surface seal which hindered the penetration of sand particles deeper into the bed.An exponential decrease of the amount of the infiltrated sand within the hyporheic zone was observed in all experiments regardless of the presence of boulders.However,the presence of boulders promoted sediment intrusion of sand particles especially for the moderate applied bed shear stress condition,since the total amount of the infiltrated sand was found to be on average 44% greater whenboulders were present.The findings from this study can provide additional insight regarding the role of boulders on promoting downwelling of flow and sediment within the gravel substrate with potential effects on fish habitat.

Typhoon vs. cold wave: a comparative assessment of geomorphic response and boulder displacement using RFID technology

Extreme storm events in coastal zones play significant roles in shaping the morphology of boulder beaches.However,boulder displacement and the geomorphological evolution of boulder beaches driven by different extreme storm events,especially typhoon events,remain poorly understood.Thus,boulder displacement and the geomorphic response on a boulder beach in Fujian,southeastern China,were explored before,during and after a cold wave event(Dec.1–7,2020)and before and after Typhoon In-Fa(Jul.19–27,2021),a large tropical storm.This was achieved by tracking 42 tagged boulders distributed in the intertidal and supratidal zones using Radio Frequency Identification(RFID)and topographic surveys using real-time kinematic techniques,respectively.The results showed obvious disparities in boulder displacement in different geomorphic zones due to cold wave and typhoon events that were mainly characterized by migration magnitude,range,direction,and mode of transport.The typhoon event led to rapid and substantial changes in the overall morphology of the boulder beach,while the cold wave event impacted the intertidal morphology of the boulder beach to only a small extent.The surrounding structure of boulders,beach slope and beach elevation had a combined dominant effect on boulder displacement under the same extreme event.Hydrodynamic factors(effective wave energy fluxes,incident wave direction,storm surge and water level)had dominant effects on boulder displacement during different extreme events.In terms of a single event,the magnitude of the boulder displacement driven by the typhoon was much greater than that driven by the cold wave.However,considering the frequency and duration of cold waves in winter,the impact of multiple consecutive cold waves on the geomorphology of the boulder beach cannot be ignored in this study area.Alternating and repeated interactions between these two processes constitute the complete geomorphic evolution of the boulder beach.This study contributes to improved predictions of the morphodynamic response of boulder beaches to future storms,especially large tropical storms,and facilitates better coastal management.

中凯矿业大直径深孔爆破落矿装药结构优化研究

装药结构对厚大矿体大直径深孔爆破落矿效果具有重要影响。中凯矿业帮中矿区现行装药结构(空气间隔长度比例24.2%)存在爆破后冲破坏作用严重的问题,造成后一排炮孔堵塞、坍塌甚至报废,严重影响生产效率;而盲目增大空气间隔长度比例则存在爆破大块率增加的风险。以矿山实际的炸药和岩石参数为基础,采用数值模拟软件LSDYNA开展大直径深孔爆破落矿装药结构优化研究。选择常用空气间隔器作为间隔材料,以空气间隔长度比例为研究对象设计了12种装药结构方案进行数值模拟,得到了装药结构与爆破后冲作用、大块率、自由面质点振动峰值速度以及峰值有效应力等评价指标之间的关系。结果表明:自由面质点振动峰值速度以及峰值有效应力随空气间隔长度比例增加逐渐下降;当空气间隔长度比例小于等于30.5%时后冲作用明显,后排炮孔可能出现塌孔现象,当空气间隔长度比例大于等于45.3%时,存在大块率增加的风险,最优装药结构的空气间隔长度比例为44.2%。现场深孔爆破落矿试验表明,优化的装药结构爆破后大块率为7.1%且爆破后冲作用得到有效控制。

泥石流中球形巨石运动规律模型试验研究

该研究通过室外水槽模型试验,模拟了不同直径巨石与不同密度泥石流完全固液耦合作用下的运动状态,分析了泥石流沟内巨石在泥石流中的运动模式、运动的影响因素及其在泥石流中的受力情况,并探讨了泥石流密度与巨石粒径对其运动速度的影响。研究结果表明:巨石在运动过程中可能出现滚动、跳跃与滑动等运动模式,巨石出现的运动模式同泥石流的密度以及巨石粒径有关;巨石的直径越大,运动速度越小,它在泥石流中的运动模式越简单,越倾向于发生滚动运动,在泥石流流体中的跟随性越好,速度比n越容易趋近于1;巨石粒径对巨石运动速度的影响大于泥石流密度对它的影响。

岩溶区域内地下连续墙施工中问题探讨

地下连续墙等基坑支护施工时会遇到各种各样的复杂地层,岩溶即其中之一。岩溶地质条件对于地下连续墙施工极为不利。基于实际施工经验,对成槽施工前溶洞勘察、成槽过程中岩溶问题处理进行详细讨论。讨论内容包括:溶洞中存在漂石、斜岩情况的处理以及溶洞导致的塌方和路面下沉等问题的处理,并基于实际经验给出部分岩溶区域地下连续墙施工建议。

软硬交替地层超深竖井受力特性及合理分层开挖厚度探讨

某检修排水井尺寸规模大,开挖深度深,所处地层条件复杂,具软硬交替特征。为确保竖井深基坑开挖稳定性,提高施工效率,利用三维数值模拟软件FLAC3D对该超深竖井基坑开挖施工全过程进行仿真模拟,分析5种不同分层开挖厚度情况下超深竖井结构受力和变形特性。研究表明:1)地连墙的最大环向应力和最大水平位移均随分层开挖厚度的增加而增加,在软岩地层范围内出现应力和变形突增,在硬岩地层范围内出现应力和变形骤减;2)以无内衬开挖下地连墙最大环向应力和最大水平位移为参考标准,单层开挖厚度范围为3~4 m对地连墙位移具有很好的约束效果,建议实际工程中土层开挖及软岩开挖时采用3 m分层厚度,硬岩部分地层开挖时采用4 m分层厚度。

浅谈城市矿山法隧道穿越圆砾土层加固技术

某城际铁路滨市区间隧道采用矿山法施工,较长地段穿越圆砾土层。为确保建构筑物的安全,采用地表高压旋喷加固,洞内超前周边加固注浆,洞内径向注浆及管棚套小导管的方式,对洞内外综合加固,起到了良好的止水效果。通过施工效果检验,洞内、地表沉降变形控制在允许范围以内,保证了隧道施工和周边建构筑的安全。

基于声波频谱特征的土体障碍物超声探测分析

为了探究超声波法对土体中障碍物的探测效果,以上海市某地区的黏性土为介质设计了室内试验,并通过改变土的含水率和超声探测距离来研究不同因素对超声探测效果的影响。通过傅里叶变换对试验结果进行频谱特征分析,分别从含水率、探测距离、障碍物三个方面分析不同影响因素下接收信号的频谱变化规律。研究结果表明:随着含水率的增大,接收信号的频谱畸变程度减小,曲线上的突变点减少;随着探测距离的增大,接收信号的频谱畸变程度增大,曲线上的突变点增多;在含水率较低的情况下,障碍物的存在对接收信号频谱的影响忽略不计,在含水率较高的情况下,障碍物的存在会导致接收信号的频谱畸变程度增大,可以从频谱上进行识别。

海域花岗岩发育区地震反射精细地质构造调查

广东近海海域位于太平洋板块与大陆板块交界处,地质活动活跃,地质结构复杂。在花岗岩分布区,基岩不均匀风化形成风化基岩凹槽、隆起和孤石等,基岩面起伏较大。单一钻探方法难以反映隧道沿线地质结构的连续变化。本文采用高频小炮距水域地震反射方法,查明隧道沿线详细地质条件,总结各种地质体的地震反射特征,研究断裂走向及活动性。在小炮间距地震剖面中,基岩面表现为反射同相轴起伏变化,基岩隆起对应同相轴上隆,基岩凹槽对应同相轴下凹;断裂表现为同相轴缺失、突变、错断;抛石发育区与孤石(群)形成绕射波。本文利用多条地震反射剖面构建三维地质模型,全面展示隧道沿线复杂地质结构,划定强风化花岗岩区。对比研究发现地震反射解释结论与钻探揭示情况吻合较好,为隧道工程设计和施工提供了可靠的地质资料。

大粒径富水卵石、漂石土地层大直径土压盾构掘进关键技术

为解决大直径土压盾构在大粒径富水卵石、漂石土地层条件下刀盘刀具磨损严重、刀盘被卡、地表塌陷、渣土喷涌等工程难题,结合都四山地轨道交通项目DSZQ-1标永丰站—蒲阳站区间盾构隧道工程的施工情况,从盾构选型设计、超前地质预警处理、掘进参数选择、渣土改良、螺机防喷涌等方面进行研究,总结出都江堰地区大粒径富水卵石、漂石土地层大直径土压盾构掘进关键技术,为后续工程在此类地层施工提供了借鉴依据。

Overburden fracture evolution laws and water-controlling technologies in mining very thick coal seam under water-rich roof

Considering the danger of water inrush in mining very thick coal seam under water-rich roof in Majialiang Coal Mine,the universal discrete element(UDEC)software was used to simulate the overburden fracture evolution laws when mining 4#coal seam.Besides,this study researched on the influence of face advancing length,speed and mining height on the height of the water flowing fractured zones(HWFFZ),and analyzed the correlation of face advancing length and change rules of aquifer water levels and goaf water inflow.Based on those mentioned above,this research proposed the following water-controlling technologies:draining the roof water before mining,draining goaf water,reasonable advancing speed and mining thickness.These water-controlling technologies were successfully used in the feld,thus ensured safely mining the very thick coal seam under water-rich roof.

Seepage field distribution and water inflow laws of tunnels in water-rich regions

Currently,the water inrush hazards during tunnel construction,the water leakage during tunnel operation,and the accompanying disturbances to the ecological environment have become the main problems that affect the structural safety of tunnels in water-rich regions.In this paper,a tunnel seepage model testing system was used to conduct experiments of the grouting circle and primary support with different permeability coefficients.The influences of the supporting structures on the water inflow laws and the distribution of the water pressure in the tunnel were analyzed.With the decrease in the permeability coefficient of the grouting circle or the primary support,the inflow rate of water into the tunnel showed a non-linear decreasing trend.In comparison,the water inflow reduction effect of grouting circle was much better than that of primary support.With the increase of the permeability coefficient of the grouting ring,the water pressure behind the primary lining increases gradually,while the water pressure behind the grouting ring decreases.Thus,the grouting of surrounding rock during the construction of water-rich tunnel can effectively weaken the hydraulic connection,reduce the influence range of seepage,and significantly reduce the decline of groundwater.Meanwhile,the seepage tests at different hydrostatic heads and hydrodynamic heads during tunnel operation period were also conducted.As the hydrostatic head decreased,the water pressure at each characteristic point decreased approximately linearly,and the water inflow rate also had a gradual downward trend.Under the action of hydrodynamic head,the water pressure had an obvious lagging effect,which was not conducive to the stability of the supporting structures,and it could be mitigated by actively regulating the drainage rate.Compared with the hydrostatic head,the hydrodynamic head could change the real-time rate of water inflow to the tunnel and broke the dynamic balance between the water pressure and water inflow rate,thereby affecting the stress state on the supporting structures.

Hydrodynamic parameters in a flood impacted boulder block ramp： Krzczonówka mountain stream, Polish Carpathians

Boulder block ramps are river engineering structures used to stabilise river beds. Block ramps provide a semi-natural and aesthetically pleasing solution to certain river engineering problems in mountain streams. When constructing block ramps,one can use the dissipative behaviour of large macroroughness elements randomly placed on the river bed to enhance fish migration in an upstream direction thus, in this sense, meeting the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive. Block ramps are often designed and constructed to replace damaged drop hydraulic structures in the channels of mountain streams. This paper investigates the resilience of a particular block ramp placed in the Krzczonówka stream(Polish Carpathians) in terms of the engineering design function and its durability against damaging. A hydrodynamic analysis of a block ramp is presented before and after a flood event that changed the configuration of the blocks. The seminatural unstructured hydraulic structure was built on the Krzczonowka stream to protect gas pipes which are located beneath it. As a result of several floods, the boulder block chute described in this paper was damaged, and some boulders were dislodged and transported downstream. Our post-flood investigations of bathymetry and velocity revealed that even damaged boulder blocks, removed from the chute and displaced downstream of the structure, still provide significant energy dissipation of the flowing water. The novel of our paper is for the first time showing very detailed analysis of unstructured block ramp hydrodynamics parameters done in the field.Also the novel finding of our investigations shows that before and after the flood event the unstructured block ramp structure, is still fish friendly in terms of hydrodynamics.

Influence of Collective Boulder Array on the Surrounding Time-averaged and Turbulent Flow Fields

Arrays of large immobile boulders,which are often encountered in steep mountain streams,affect the timing and magnitude of sediment transport events through their interactions with the approach flow.Despite their importance in the quantification of the bedload rate,the collective influence of a boulder array on the approach timeaveraged and turbulent flow field has to date been overlooked.The overarching objective is,thus,to assess the collective effects of a boulder array on the time-averaged and turbulent flow fields surrounding an individual boulder within the array,placing particular emphasis on highlighting the bed shear stress spatial variability.The objective of this study is pursued by resolving and comparing the timeaveraged and turbulent flow fields developing around a boulder,with and without an array of isolated boulders being present.The results show that the effects of an individual boulder on the time-averaged streamwise velocity and turbulence intensity were limited to the boulder's immediate vicinity in the streamwise(x/d c < 2-3) and vertical(z/d c < 1) directions.Outside of the boulder's immediate vicinity,the time-averaged streamwise velocity was found to be globally decelerated.This global deceleration was attributed to the form drag generated collectively by the boulder array.More importantly,the boulder array reduced the applied shear stress exerted on theindividual boulders found within the array,by absorbing a portion of the total applied shear.Furthermore,the array was found to have a "homogenizing" effect on the near-bed turbulence thus significantly reducing the turbulence intensity in the near-bed region.The findings of this study suggest that the collective boulder array bears a portion of the total applied bed shear stress as form drag,hence reducing the available bed shear stress for transporting incoming mobile sediment.Thus,the effects of the boulder array should not be ignored in sediment transport predictions.These effects are encapsulated in this study by Equation(6).

Characterizing Clustering in Boulder Bed Channels and the Impact on Shear Stress Equations

Boulders and cobbles are often used in stream restoration projects to increase flow resistance and enhance channel stability and habitat diversity. Particle size metrics determined from the particle distribution are often used as a proxy for shear stress in field equations. Clustering of large particles has been thought to contribute to shear stress, but the effect of clustering is not accounted for in equations that use a representative particle size, such as the D84. In this paper, clustering is defined using the upper tail (≥84%) in a variable called Topsum. The number of clusters, average size of clusters, and shear stress are evaluated using the proposed definition of cluster. Findings suggest that the upper tail represents the roughness height better than the commonly used proxy of D84 for boulder bed streams (streams which have a D84 particle 0.05 - 0.15 meters).