Payment for Water-Related Ecosystem Services as a Strategic Watershed Management Approach

Payments for ecosystem services (PES) have been created worldwide to assist watershed management and improve or maintain water quality. Considering their importance, we conducted a holistic review of payment for water-related ecosystem services to understand how this instrument has been applied in watershed management worldwide. First, we identified the watershed management actions considered by the PES programs and the challenges of implementing water-related PES. After we identified the methods and criteria used to define priority areas for water-related PES. Our review considered articles published on the Web of Science from 2011 to 2022. We found 236 articles relating PES to water resources, highlighting the main water conservation strategies: native vegetation conservation, native vegetation restoration, and implementing best agricultural practices. The method most frequent was interview, followed by the use of technologies, document analysis, and hydrological models. Another significant result was that priority areas for receiving PES are mainly riparian zones, areas near or with native vegetation cover, areas with higher erosion potential, steep areas, and areas with socially vulnerable communities. This review was crucial to identify efficient water resource conservation strategies and potential challenges in the implementation and development of PES programs.

Integrated watershed management:evolution,development and emerging trends

Watershed management is an ever-evolving practice involving the management of land, water, biota, and other resources in a defined area for ecological, social, and economic purposes. In this paper, we explore the following questions： How has watershed management evolved？ What new tools are available and how can they be integrated into sustainable watershed management？ To address these questions, we discuss the process of developing integrated watershed management strategies for sustainable manage- ment through the incorporation of adaptive management techniques and traditional ecological knowledge. We address the numerous benefits from integration acrossdisciplines and jurisdictional boundaries, as well as the incorporation of technological advancements, such as remote sensing, GIS, big data, and multi-level social-eco- logical systems analysis, into watershed management strategies. We use three case studies from China, Europe, and Canada to review the success and failure of integrated watershed management in addressing different ecological, social, and economic dilemmas in geographically diverse locations. Although progress has been made in watershed management strategies, there are still numerous issues impeding successful management outcomes; many of which can be remedied through holistic management approaches, incorporation of cutting-edge science and technology, and cross-jurisdictional coordination. We conclude by high- lighting that future watershed management will need to account for climate change impacts by employing techno- logical advancements and holistic, cross-disciplinary approaches to ensure watersheds continue to serve their ecological, social, and economic functions. We present three case studies in this paper as a valuable resource for scientists, resource managers, government agencies, and other stakeholders aiming to improve integrated watershed management strategies and more efficiently and successfully achieve ecological and socio-economic management objectives.

Optimal allocation of watershed management cost among different water users

The issue of water scarcity highlights the importance of watershed management. A sound watershed manage- ment should make all water users share the incurred cost. This study analyzes the optimal allocation of watershed management cost among different water users. As a consumable, water should be allocated to different users the amounts in which their marginal utilities (MUs) or marginal products (MPs) of water are equal. The value of MUs or MPs equals the water price that the watershed manager charges. When water is simultaneously used as consumable and non- consumable, the watershed manager produces the quantity of water in which the sum of MUs and/or MPs for the two types of uses equals the marginal cost of water production. Each water user should share the portion of watershed management cost in the percentage that his MU or MP accounts for the sum of MUs and/or MPs. Thus, the price of consumable water does not equal the marginal cost of water production even if there is no public good.

Transaction costs for collaboration in the watershed management of the Cuyahoga River Area of Concern

This study examines the transaction costs of collaborative watershed management in the Cuyahoga River Area of Concern(AOC)—one of the 43 geographic areas designated by the U.S.and Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement(GLWQA),where significant impairment of beneficial uses has occurred as a result of human activities.The Cuyahoga River is located in Northeast Ohio,the U.S.and flows through the City of Cleveland before draining into Lake Erie—one of the five Great Lakes of North America.The watershed is degraded due to municipal and agricultural discharges,streambank erosion,and contamination from urban and industrial sources.This research explores how a diverse group of stakeholders convened under the Cuyahoga River AOC Advisory Committee to share information,coordinate activities,agree on activities that restore beneficial uses,and support strategic management actions.In this study,23 semi-structured interviews with members of the advisory committee were conducted between January 28,2020 and April 20,2020,with follow-up emails and phone calls as needed to corroborate information.A review of research articles and government documents supported the interviews,including United States Environmental Protection Agency(U.S.EPA)and Ohio Environment Production Agency(OEPA)reports on the GLWQA and Cuyahoga River Remedial Action Plans.A third source of data is from direct participant observation at quarterly meetings of the advisory committee during 2017–2020,binational AOC conferences in 2017 and 2019,and other professional events geared towards restoring the Cuyahoga River AOC in 2016–2020.Results of this study include a set of recommendations to help guide group structure and decision-making processes,including(1)employing best available technology to organize AOC events and disseminate information;(2)supporting new members with an orientation and/or mentor to clearly define formal and informal committee rules;(3)assuring equal access to detailed information on management action plans with a real time dashboard;(4)updating voting procedures and the prioritization of management actions;and(5)better incorporating underrepresented local communities and highlevel decision makers from municipalities,government agencies,and nongovernmental organizations located within the Cuyahoga River AOC.Results help to explain the collaborative process within the advisory committee and measure the institutional performance of the advisory committee in terms of efficiency,equitability,accountability,and adaptability.

Participatory and integrated watershed management and community based organgzanon

In Iran, and in order to encourage local watershed management, community based organizations （CBO） like ＂cooperatives of watershed＂, ＂construction groups＂ and ＂watershed management groups＂ have been established to obtain resident＇s cooperation in activities eormeeted with protection, reclamation and exploitation of natural resources in the basins that lead to sustainability within watershed management. This study was done as a ease study to explore the role of Remeleh Group （RG） as a CBO in the management of the ＂Kharkheh＂ sub-basin. Participatory action and learning method was used. Participatory tools including natural resources mapping, flow diagram, transect walk, semi-structured interview and brainstorming were applied. Making the conclusion, it was found that the CBO of Remeleh Group cause： （1） Enhancement of social capital through encouraging cooperation and participatory practices, creating new communication among local residents and outsiders, reducing conflicts and promoting the solidarity among communities in the sub basin of Karldaeh; （2） Sustain livelihood and economic situation through agricultural intensification and livelihood diversification （gardening and agriculture together and reducing migration）; （3） Conservation of environmental and natural recourses via the implementation of watershed activities like vine, terracing, bunding and destocking, seedling, and check dams; （4） Empower local people through carrying out training on the watershed practices.

Constrction of watershed flood disastermanagement information system and its application to the catastrophic flood of theYangtze River in 1998

This paper introduces a general method of establishing Watershed Flooding Disaster Management Information System (WFDMIS). The functions, database, models, user interface, software and hardware are considered. An application example in Poyang Lake Basin was given.

Factors affecting farmers’participation in watershed management programs in the Northeastern highlands of Ethiopia:a case study in the Teleyayen sub-watershed

Introduction:This study investigated factors affecting farmers’participation in watershed management programs in the Northeastern highlands of Ethiopia by taking the Teleyayen sub-watershed as a case study.Data were collected from 215 farm households which were selected from the four villages using a multistage sampling procedure,involving a combination of purposive and random sampling.Data were gathered using a structured survey questionnaire,focus group discussion,and key informant interviews.Descriptive analysis,Pearson correlation analysis,and regression analysis were employed to analyze the data.Results:Findings of this study showed that farmer’s perception has a strong positive correlation(r=0.612,P=0.000)with the farmer’s decision to participate in the watershed management programs followed by government support(r=0.163,P=0.017),while the slope of the farmland and the gender of the household head have shown significant and negative associations.The binary logistic regression analysis also revealed that six independent variables were significant in explaining the factors affecting the farmers’decision to participate in watershed management programs.These variables were land redistribution,gender,agricultural labor force,extension service,farm size,and slope.Of these,land redistribution,gender,agricultural labor force,extension service,and slope of the farmland indicated a negative influence,while farm size of a household exerted a positive impact.The study also examined the role of discrete variables in explaining variations of variables in affecting the farmers’decision to participate in the programs.Thus,two variables found to be significant.These variables are the gender of the household head and land tenure security.Accordingly,the chi-square result of the variable(χ^(2)=9.052)of gender was found to be statistically significant at the 95%level of significance.Similarly,the chi-square result(X^(2)=8.792)of land tenure security was found to be statistically significant at the 95%level of significance.Conclusions:The result of the study suggests to work on raising the awareness of farmers’about the long-term benefits of the watershed programs and to design a strategy to diversify their livelihoods.

Post-adoption behaviour of farmers towards soil and water conservation technologies of watershed management in India

The Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation(IISWC)and its Research Centres have developed many successful model watershed projects in India in the past and implemented many Soil and Water Conservation(SWC)technologies for sustainable watershed management.While many evaluation studies were conducted on these projects in the past,there has been no assessment of the post-adoption status of the SWC technologies over a longer period.It was imperative to appraise the behaviour of the farmers with regard to the continuance or discontinuance of the technologies adopted,diffusion or infusion that took place and technological gaps that occurred in due course of time in the post watershed programme.Therefore,it was realized that the postadoption behaviour of beneficiary farmers who have adopted different soil and water conservation technologies for watershed management projects should be studied in detail.The research study was initiated in 2012 as a core project at Vasad as the lead Centre along with IISWC headquarter Dehradun,and Centres Agra,Bellary,Chandigarh,Datia,Kota&Ooty,with the specific objectives of the study to measure the extent of post-adoption behaviour(continued-adoption,discontinuance,technological gap,diffusion and infusion)of farmers towards the adopted SWC technologies of watershed management.In the present study various indices regarding continued adoption,dis-adoption(discontinuance),technological gap,diffusion,infusion regarding soil and water conservation technologies for watershed management were developed for measurement of post-adoption behaviour of farmers.It was revealed that a little less than three-fourth(73%)of SWC technologies continued to be adopted and more than onefourth(27%)were discontinued by farmers.Out of the total continue adopted SWC technologies by farmers,a little less than onefifth(19%)of technologies continued to be adopted with a technological gap.More than one-fourth(28%)of SWC technologies were also diffused to other farmers’fields in nearby villages and on an average 1.2 technologies were also infused into the farmers'fields from outside by their own efforts in the watersheds developed by the IISWC and its Centres.

Land Use/Cover and Naturalness Changes for Watershed Environmental Management(Southeastern Brazil)

Driving forces on the landscape require regional management and/or local actions, together with other external factors. To operationalize this approach, this paper carried out a comparative analysis of the naturalness dynamics of the Jacaré-Gua&#231u and Jacaré-Pepira watershed, based on land use/cover changes and a structural indicator of the landscape, over the 10-year (2004-2014), as support opportunities for improving its environmental planning and management. Land use/cover dynamics were obtained based on screen digitizing of LandSat imagery, using polygon manual digitalization. Naturalness scenarios of the watersheds, over the 10-year (2004-2014), were obtained based on Urbanity Indicator, which evaluates how much the natural landscapes are dominated by altered systems. The total area of watersheds showed a predominantly scenario, induced by anthropogenic agricultural and non-agricultural expansion areas, mainly by conversion of other land use/cover types in sugarcane cultivation. Despite the increase in natural vegetation areas, over the 10-year (2004-2014), Jacaré-Gua&#231u and Jacaré-Pepira watersheds are far from a sustainable condition. However Jacaré-Gua&#231u watershed presents a scenario of more committed naturalness due to the increase in Urbanity Index values ≥ 0.7. The historical process of land use occupation for agricultural production remains the main driving force of naturalness changes, occupying more than 70% of the total area of watersheds. These results have significant implications for fast urbanizing municipalities in providing key information about long term land use impact on the watershed structure and function, making it possible for policy makers, scientists and stakeholders to identify land uses which are hindered or enhanced under various scenarios of land use change over the time, and making it possible to explore the trade-offs between them to improve watershed management.

Assessment of Willingness to Pay as a Source of Financing for the Sustainable Development of Barobbob Watershed in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines

This study employed the Contingent Valuation Method to assess the willingness to pay of water users, as a source of financing for the sustainable development of Barobbob Watershed. The WTP study was conducted among 345 waters users in 19 barangays in the municipalities of Solano and Bayombong. Uncensored data revealed that 63.8% (58.84% for the adjusted) of the respondents revealed willingness to pay for improved watershed management. The mean WTP amount, estimated through a logit model, Turnbull Distributor-Free Estimator and Lower Bound Estimate, is found to be PhP39.35, PhP27.80 and PhP25.90/month/household, respectively. Respondents WTP is influenced by bid amount, age, membership in environmental organization, experience with water-related problems, civil status, house ownership, and awareness on the concept of watershed. Respondents were willing to pay because they wanted a sustainable water supply for the present and future generations. A payment scheme is possible and it could provide a sustainable flow of fund, however, the willingness percentages still needed to be increased. Community education and public awareness (CEPA) campaign is necessary to enhance the water users’ knowledge and understand about the importance and values of watersheds. Ultimately, WTP percentage and WTP amounts would increase.

Relationships Between River Water Quality and Landscape Factors in Haihe River Basin, China: Implications for Environmental Management

River water plays a key role in human health, and in social and economic development, and is often affected by both natural factors and human activities. An in-depth understanding of the role of these factors can help in developing an effective catchment management strategy to protect precious water resources. This study analyzed river water quality, patterns of terrestrial and riparian ecosystems, intensity of agricultural activities, industrial structure, and spatial distribution of pollutant emissions in the Haihe River Basin in China for the year of 2010, identifying the variables that have the greatest impact on river water quality. The area percentage of farmland in study area, the percentage of natural vegetation cover in the 1000-m riparian zone, rural population density, industrial Gross Domestic Product(GDP)/km^2, and industrial amino nitrogen emissions were all significantly correlated with river water quality(P < 0.05). Farming had the largest impact on river water quality, explaining 43.0% of the water quality variance, followed by the coverage of natural vegetation in the 1000-m riparian zone, which explained 36.2% of the water quality variance. Industrial amino nitrogen emissions intensity and rural population density explained 31.6% and 31.4% of the water quality variance, respectively, while industrial GDP/km^2 explained 26.6%. Together, these five indicators explained 67.3% of the total variance in water quality. Consequently, water environmental management of the Haihe River Basin should focus on adjusting agricultural activities, conserving riparian vegetation, and reducing industrial pollutant emissions by optimizing industrial structure. The results demonstrate how human activities drive the spatial pattern changes of river water quality, and they can provide reference for developing land use guidelines and for prioritizing management practices to maintain stream water quality in a large river basin.

Payments for Watershed Services and Practices in China:Achievements and Challenges

Implementation of payments for watershed services(PWS) has been regarded as a promising approach to coordinating the interests of upstream and downstream ecosystem services stakeholders. There is growing concern about whether PWS programs have achieved their original environmental goals of improving water quality and quantity, as well as the ancillary objective of increasing the welfare of local people. We start with an overview of PWS schemes and focus on their particularity and implementation mechanisms in China. We proceed to review 62 active PWS cases and examine their environmental performance in detail. The resulting findings show that PWS schemes have been able to reduce water pollution to some extent by establishing collaborative upstream/downstream watershed management policies, thereby improving water quality and quantity, as well as by making government officials more responsible for water resource management. In addition, their continued effectiveness in light of present challenges such as water-quality data availability is discussed. Chinese PWS schemes and their implementation mechanisms also provide information useful in monitoring environmental outcomes and guiding future designs of PWS programs in other regions.

Cascade Tank Water Quality Management: A Case Study in Thirappane Tank Cascade System, Sri Lanka

Tank cascade system(TCS)is a series of tanks located in a meso-catchment and has been accepted as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System found in Sri Lanka.Ecosystem components of the TCS play a major role in purifying water within the system.This study attempted to investigate the water quality status and the farmers’willingness to rehabilitate the ecosystem components of the Thirappane TCS.Drinking and irrigation water quality parameters were tested in 34 locations and drinking and irrigation water quality indexes were calculated.Participatory rural appraisal and a questioner survey were conducted to gather social data.Water of TCS was observed to be appropriate for irrigation but not for drinking during the Maha cropping season.Based on the results of the Nitrate(as NO_(3)^(-))and Total Phosphate(as PO_(4)^(3-)),water of TCS can be categorized as eutrophic.Presence of ecosystem features of tank cascade system,annual income of the respondents,satisfaction on the quality of water for drinking,and the awareness about the tank cascade system significantly influenced the participatory decisions of the community on the rehabilitation of TCS.This study shall be an example and an eye opener to formulate sustainable tank cascade management plan.

Prioritization of Sub-Watersheds in Ruparel Watershed, Rajasthan Based on Morphometric and Land Use/Land Cover Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS

Watershed prioritization is considered as the most significant aspect in watershed resource management and development program. The present work attempts to prioritize seventeen sub-watersheds in Ruparel watershed of Alwar district of Rajasthan, India. For prioritization of sub-watersheds, morphometric and land use/land cover (LULC) analysis were performed using remote sensing and GIS. Base map of the study area has been derived from SOI toposheet on 1:50,000 scale whereas LULC mapping was done using IRS P6 LISS III data. Standard methods for drainage morphometry have been followed for computing morphometric parameters such as linear and shape for seventeen sub-watersheds and allotted ranks based on their relationship with erodibility and a compound value has been calculated for final ranking. Five main LULC categories were computed and were assigned priority ranks and subsequently a compound parameter was determined for final ranking. Integration of both morphometric and LULC results reveal that SBW5, SBW7, SBW12 and SBW16 are the common sub-watersheds that fall under high priority, SBW3 falls under Medium category and SBW11 comes under low priority. The results of the analysis can be used to identify the sub-watersheds which need immediate restoration and will eventually help in watershed resource management for sustainable development.

Evaluating soil erosion and runoff dynamics in a humid subtropic, low stream order, southern plains watershed from cultivation and solar farm development

Much work has been done to understand and improve soil and water conservation where agriculture has driven land use intensification.Less is known about soil-and water-related impacts from intensification driven by solar farming,especially at watershed-scales.Here we employed Hydrologic Engineering Center's Hydrologic Modeling System(HEC-HMS)to model Pond Creek,a rural watershed in Texas,USA.Land use is primarily crop cultivation and secondarily pasture for cattle grazing.Presently,several industrial-scale projects are planned to convert≈15–30%of Pond Creek from agriculture to solar farms.The model was parameterized using public data sources and information from local stakeholders,then calibrated to several historical precipitation events.Experiments were conducted by varying precipitation depth,duration,and land uses:native vegetation pre-cultivation(control),cultivation(current),current conditions with 15%solar farm conversion(solar),and current conditions with 30%solar farm conversion(solar x2).Shifting to solar farming led to significant increases in cumulative sediment load(+12%–30%),with no significant differences in peak discharge rate changes(+0.38%–4%).Comparison to soil loss tolerance values showed current and solar treatment erosion rates exceeded tolerance values between 0.17 and 2.29 tons per hectare and all treatments were significantly different than the native treatment.We discuss high leverage strategies applicable to solar farm development sites as well as watersheds where they reside.Accelerating demand for land for renewable energy such as solar farming warrants greater attention from the soil and water conservation community to anticipate and mitigate impacts across landscapes.

CAUSES AND CONTROL COUNTERMEASURES OF EUTROPHICATION IN CHAOHU LAKE, CHINA

Chaohu Lake, located in the central Anhui Province, is one of the five largest fresh lakes in China. Now it is one of the three most eutrophication lakes in China. The deterioration of its water quality has influenced the sustainable development of society, economy and environment of Hefei City, the capital of Anhui Province. A series of measures have been carried out to control its eutrophication, but it is still serious. On the basis of the lake water quality data from 1984 to 2003, the causes of the eutrophication of Chaohu Lake are analyzed. Studies indicated that the suitable natural conditions and human activities played a crucial role in the process of the eutrophication of Chaohu Lake. A great amount of industrial, agricultural and domestic sewage discharged into the lake is the main cause of eutrophication in the lake. Land use, soil erosion and shoreline collapse destroyed the watershed eco-environment and the terrestrial ecosystem of Chaohu Lake. And the building of Yuxi Gate extends the sluggish of the nutritious substance and speeds up the process of the eutrophication. From the view of systematic engineering and watershed ecology, a series of the countermeasures have been put forward to control the eutrophication.

Impact of land use change on water resource allocation in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin in northwestern China

In recent decades, China has been experiencing rapid economic development, population growth and urbanization. These processes have stressed the shortages of water resources in China, especially in the arid re- gions of northwestern China. In order to sustain the expanding cropland, people increased groundwater exploitation in these regions. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively analyze the changes in land use and water resources, and their relationship in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin, a typical inland river basin in northwest China. The data of land use change were interpreted using aerial photographs （1965） and Landsat TM images （1986 and 2007）. The data of irrigation water volume in the irrigation districts were spatialized in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin. The spatial variation of the groundwater depth was interpolated using the geo- statistical method. The results showed that the cultivated cropland area along oasis fringe increased by 15.38% and 43.60% during the periods 1965-1986 and 1986-2007, respectively. Surface water amount for irrigation had almost doubled from 1956 to 2010. The decrease of grassland area mainly occurred at the alluvial fan in front of the Qilian Mountains, with 36.47% during 1965-1986 and 38.56% during 1986-2007, respectively. The groundwater depth in front of the mountain constantly increased from 1986 to 2007. We found that the overuse of surface water and overexploitation of groundwater had direct consequences on the natural environments. We suggests that the efficiency of surface water resources use among different irrigation distdcts needs to be improved, which will significantly ease the conflicts between increasing water demand for irrigation and a shortage of water resources in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin.

Study on Environmental Risk and Economic Benefits of Rotation Systems in Farmland of Erhai Lake Basin

This study was designed to find out an optimised planting system of reducing non-point （source） pollution by analyzing the reasons and the factors of influence non-point pollution in farmland of Erhai Lake basin. The results showed that incomes, residual nitrogen in soil, and the loss of nitrogen in surface water in rice-garlic system were higher than those in rice-fava bean system. There were positive correlations between the nitrogen loss of farmland, nitrogen inputs, residual nitrogen in soil, and incomes of farmland. Economic benefits and environment benefits are both appropriate, if the area of rice-garlic system would be reduced to 53% and the area of rice-fava bean system increased to 36% of total cropping area in the investigated watershed. Adjustment of planting structure and introduction of reasonable rotation systems is considered an effective measure of controlling agricultural non-point pollution in watersheds of Erhai Lake.

GIS tools for preliminary debris-flow assessment at regional scale

The assessment of the areas endangered by debris flows is a major issue in the context of mountain watershed management. Depending on the scale of analysis, different methods are required for the assessment of the areas exposed to debris flows.While 2-D numerical models are advised for detailed mapping of inundation areas on individual alluvial fans, preliminary recognition of hazard areas at the regional scale can be adequately performed by less data-demanding methods, which enable priority ranking of channels and alluvial fans at risk by debris flows. This contribution focuses on a simple and fast procedure that has been implemented for regionalscale identification of debris-flow prone channels and prioritization of the related alluvial fans. The methodology is based on the analysis of morphometric parameters derived from Digital Elevation Models(DEMs). Potential initiation sites of debris flows are identified as the DEM cells that exceed a threshold of slope-dependent contributing area. Channel reaches corresponding to debris flows propagation, deceleration and stopping conditions are derived from thresholds of local slope. An analysis of longitudinal profiles is used for the computation of the runout distance of debris flows. Information on erosion-resistant bedrock channels and sediment availability surveyed in the field are taken into account in the applications. A set of software tools was developed and made available(https://github.com/Hydrogeomorphology Tools) to facilitate the application of the procedure. This approach, which has been extensively validated by means of field checks, has been extensively applied in the eastern Italian Alps. This contribution discusses potential and limitations of the method in the frame of the management of small mountain watersheds.

Ranking Agricultural Sub-basins for Environmental Protection

Reconstructing long-term vegetation buffers along streams in agricultural landscapes has become a common environmental restoration strategy for improving water quality and wildlife habitat connectivity.This article developed a linear weighted model to rank the priority of agricultural sub-basins for the establishment of vegetative buffers.The method was applied to an agricultural watershed of 146 km2 in Ontario,Canada.The watershed was divided into 11 sub-basins as basic decision units.In each subbasin,four stream buffer schemes with widths of 5,10,15 and 20m were generated.For each buffer,three benefit-cost attributes of reconstructing vegetation cover were estimated,which include acreage per dollar,sediment abatement per dollar and habitat benefit per dollar.These attributes were first normalized using a linear normalization approach to eliminate the effects across different units.The normalized attributes were then integrated using a simple additive weighting method to rank the 11 sub-basins for prioritizing spatial restoration action.A sensitivity analysis was also conducted to observe the impact of a change in attribute weights on the management decisions.The results suggest that vegetation buffers reconstructed for achieving the water quality goal are not effective in improving habitat connectivity and vice versa.