2023: Weather and Climate Extremes Hitting the Globe with Emerging Features

Globally,2023 was the warmest observed year on record since at least 1850 and,according to proxy evidence,possibly of the past 100000 years.As in recent years,the record warmth has again been accompanied with yet more extreme weather and climate events throughout the world.Here,we provide an overview of those of 2023,with details and key background causes to help build upon our understanding of the roles of internal climate variability and anthropogenic climate change.We also highlight emerging features associated with some of these extreme events.Hot extremes are occurring earlier in the year,and increasingly simultaneously in differing parts of the world(e.g.,the concurrent hot extremes in the Northern Hemisphere in July 2023).Intense cyclones are exacerbating precipitation extremes(e.g.,the North China flooding in July and the Libya flooding in September).Droughts in some regions(e.g.,California and the Horn of Africa)have transitioned into flood conditions.Climate extremes also show increasing interactions with ecosystems via wildfires(e.g.,those in Hawaii in August and in Canada from spring to autumn 2023)and sandstorms(e.g.,those in Mongolia in April 2023).Finally,we also consider the challenges to research that these emerging characteristics present for the strategy and practice of adaptation.

Extreme Weather and Climate Events and Their Impacts on Island Countries in the Western Pacific: Cyclones, Floods and Droughts

Increases in the frequency of extreme weather and climate events and the severity of their impacts on the natural environment and society have been observed across the globe in recent decades. In addition to natural climate variability and greenhouse-induced climate change, extreme weather and climate events produce the most pronounced impacts. In this paper, the climate of three island countries in the Western Pacific: Fiji, Samoa and Tuvalu, has been analysed. Warming trends in annual average maximum and minimum temperatures since the 1950s have been identified, in line with the global warming trend. We present recent examples of extreme weather and climate events and their impacts on the island countries in the Western Pacific: the 2011 drought in Tuvalu, the 2012 floods in Fiji and a tropical cyclone, Evan, which devastated Samoa and Fiji in December 2012. We also relate occurrences of the extreme weather and climate events to phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. The impacts of such natural disasters on the countries are severe and the costs of damage are astronomical. In some cases, climate extremes affect countries to such an extent that governments declare a national state of emergency, as occurred in Tuvalu in 2011 due to the severe drought’s impact on water resources. The projected increase in the frequency of weather and climate extremes is one of the expected consequences of the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentration and will likely have even stronger negative impacts on the natural environment and society in the future. This should be taken into consideration by authorities of Pacific Island Countries and aid donors when developing strategies to adapt to the increasing risk of climate extremes. Here we demonstrate that the modern science of seasonal climate prediction is well developed, with current dynamical climate models being able to provide skilful predictions of regional rainfall two-three months in advance. The dynamic climate model-based forecast products are now disseminated to the National Meteorological Services of 15 island countries in the Western Pacific through a range of web-based information tools. We conclude with confidence that seasonal climate prediction is an effective solution at the regional level to provide governments and local communities of island nations in the Western Pacific with valuable assistance for informed decision making for adaptation to climate variability and change.

Regional Climate Index for Floods and Droughts Using Canadian Climate Model (CGCM3.1)

The impacts of climate change on the discharge regimes in New Brunswick (Canada) were analyzed, using artificial neural network models. Future climate data were extracted from the Canadian Coupled General Climate Model (CGCM3.1) under the greenhouse gas emission scenarios B1 and A2 defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The climate change fields (temperatures and precipitation) were downscaled using the delta change approach. Using the artificial neural network, future river discharge was predicted for selected hydrometric stations. Then, a frequency analysis was carried out using the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distribution function, where the parameters of the distribution were estimated using L-moments method. Depending on the scenario and the time slice used, the increase in low return floods was about 30% and about 15% for higher return floods. Low flows showed increases of about 10% for low return droughts and about 20% for higher return droughts. An important part of the design process using frequency analysis is the estimation of future change in floods or droughts under climate scenarios at a given site and for specific return periods. This was carried out through the development of Regional Climate Index (RCI), linking future floods and droughts to their frequencies under climate scenarios B1 and A2.

Urbanization Impact on Regional Climate and Extreme Weather:Current Understanding,Uncertainties,and Future Research Directions

Urban environments lie at the confluence of social,cultural,and economic activities and have unique biophysical characteristics due to continued infrastructure development that generally replaces natural landscapes with built-up structures.The vast majority of studies on urban perturbation of local weather and climate have been centered on the urban heat island(UHI)effect,referring to the higher temperature in cities compared to their natural surroundings.Besides the UHI effect and heat waves,urbanization also impacts atmospheric moisture,wind,boundary layer structure,cloud formation,dispersion of air pollutants,precipitation,and storms.In this review article,we first introduce the datasets and methods used in studying urban areas and their impacts through both observation and modeling and then summarize the scientific insights on the impact of urbanization on various aspects of regional climate and extreme weather based on more than 500 studies.We also highlight the major research gaps and challenges in our understanding of the impacts of urbanization and provide our perspective and recommendations for future research priorities and directions.

Change of Flood Patterns in China under the Influences of Climate Change and Human Activities

Based on the flood affected area （FA） data of the provinces in China from 1950 to 2005, the article discusses the change of the flood patterns in China, and investigates its relationship with climate change and human activities. The flood center shifted from North China and the Yangtze-Huaihe basin in the 1950s towards the south, north and west of China, and located in the south of the Yangtze River and South China after the 1990s. The FA in the western provinces was continuously on the rise since the 1950s. There are two characteristics for the future flood pattem in China. The pattern of ＂flood in the south and drought in the north＂ depends on the north-south shift of the maximum rainfall region in eastern China. The flood intensification to the west of Hu Huanyong＇s line mainly results from the increase of rainfall, extreme precipitation and the melting of glaciers under the background of human activity magnification.

Preventing the Deluge: Climate Change, the Four Spheres, Interactions, and Causalities

Climate change means water change, and the impacts of climate change cause not only global sea levels to rise, but also elicit dangerous levels of coastal and mainland flooding. This study relates the effects of climate-change-induced sea level risings to several harmful, and sometimes preventable, factors causing floods. One topic discussed here will be the ocean’s current (more specifically, “The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Current”) as it continues to warm with increasing temperatures. In addition to discussing the effects of the AMOC, it also relates the increasing causes that are contributing to flooding, plus the proliferation of melt from ice sheets, ice caps, and glaciers, which inevitably contributes to the devastating effects of flooding on coastal communities, destroying habitats and contributing to the extinction of both aquatic and land animals, and even impacting human infrastructure and livelihoods. This examination additionally presents the serious implications that climate change and flooding have had on the planet’s freshwater resources and reserves, which are being further destroyed by the added influx of salt water, causing water to then be treated with aquifers, an energy-intensive and highly expensive process. Lastly, this paper provides several suggested possibilities for curbing some of the harmful effects humans have already had on contributing to climate change, as well as the environmental factors that have further caused dangerous levels of flooding.

Characteristics and Variations of the East Asian Monsoon System and Its Impacts on Climate Disasters in China

Recent advances in studies of the structural characteristics and temporal-spatial variations of the East Asian monsoon （EAM） system and the impact of this system on severe climate disasters in China are reviewed. Previous studies have improved our understanding of the basic characteristics of horizontal and vertical structures and the annual cycle of the EAM system and the water vapor transports in the EAM region. Many studies have shown that the EAM system is a relatively independent subsystem of the Asian- Australian monsoon system, and that there exists an obvious quasi-biennial oscillation with a meridional tripole pattern distribution in the interannual variations of the EAM system. Further analyses of the basic physical processes, both internal and external, that influence the variability of the EAM system indicate that the EAM system may be viewed as an atmosphere-ocean-land coupled system, referred to the EAM climate system in this paper. Further, the paper discusses how the interaction and relationships among various components of this system can be described through the East Asia Pacific （EAP） teleconnection pattern and the teleconnection pattern of meridional upper-tropospheric wind anomalies along the westerly jet over East Asia. Such reasoning suggests that the occurrence of severe floods in the Yangtze and Hualhe River valleys and prolonged droughts in North China are linked, respectively~ to the background interannual and interdecadal variability of the EAM climate system. Besides, outstanding scientific issues related to the EAM system and its impact on climate disasters in China are also discussed.

The 1997/ 98 ENSO Cycle and Its Impact on Summer Climate Anomalies in East Asia

The observed data of the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies and the sea temperature (ST) in the sub-layer of the equatorial Pacific, the NCEP/ NCAR reanalysis data and the data set of daily precipitation in China are used to analyze the characteristics of the 1997 / 98 ENSO cycle and its impact on summer climate anomalies in East Asia. The results show that the 1997/98 ENSO cycle, the strongest one in the 20th century, might be characterized by rapid development and decay and eastward propagation from the West Pacific warm pool. Influenced by the ENSO cycle, in 1997, the serious drought and hot summer occurred in North China, and in the summer of 1998, the severe floods occurred in the Yangtze River valley, especially in the Dongting Lake and Boyang Lake valleys, South Korea and Japan. The analysis also shows that: influenced by the 1997/98 ENSO cycle, the water vapor transportation by the Asian monsoon in the summer of 1997 was very different from that in the summer of 1998. In the summer of 1997, the water vapor transportation by the Asian summer monsoon was weak in North China and the northern part of the Korea Peninsula. Thus, it caused the drought and hot summer in North China. However, in the summer of 1998, the sea temperature in the sub-layer of the West Pacific warm pool dropped, the western Pacific subtropical high shifted southward. Thus, a large amount of water vapor was transported from the Bay of Bengal, the South China Sea and the tropical western Pacific into the Yangtze River valley of China, South Korea and Japan, and the severe flood occurred there. Key words ENSO cycle - Climate anomaly - Monsoon - Drought and flood This study was supported by the National Key Programme for Developing Basic Sciences under Grant No. G1998040900(I).

Simulation of Extreme Climate Events over China with Different Regional Climate Models

During phase II of the Regional Climate Model Inter-comparison Project （RMIP） for Asia, the Asian climate was estimated from July 1988 to December 1998 using six climate models. In this paper, the abilities of six climate models to simulate several important ex- treme climate events in China during the last years of the last century were analyzed. The modeled results for the intensity of the precipitation anomaly over the Yang- tze-Huaihe Valley during the summers of 1991 and 1998 were weaker than the observed values. The positive pre- cipitation anomaly responsible for a catastrophic flood in 1991 was well reproduced in almost all simulation results, but the intensity and range of the precipitation anomaly in 1998 were weaker in the modeled results. The spatial dis- tribution of extreme climate events in 1997, when severe drought affected North China and flood impacted South China, was reproduced by most of the regional models because the anomaly of the large-scale background field was well-simulated, despite poor simulation of high temperature areas in the north during the summer by all models.

THE PRELIMINARY STUDY ON POSSIBLE SCENARIOS OF FLOOD AND DROUGHT IN CHINA IN THE CASE OF GLOBAL WARMING

According to Prof. Zhu Kezhen’s(Chu K.C.)historical climatic division,the last 500 years in China can be divided into several alternately cold and warm periods.The periods of 1470-1520,1620-1720,1840-1890 had cold winters,while those of 1550-1600,1770-1830 had warm winters.Based on such division,in four kinds of periods,i.e.cold, warm,cold-warm,and warmcold (transition period),the differences between flood/drought degree in 120 stations in China and average of flood/drought degree in the last 500 years have been calculated. Positive anomaly indicates drought-prone area,while negative anomaly indicates flood-prone area. This historical experience provides a background to analyze the possible scenarios in the case of global warming in the future.The final results suggest that in the case of global warming the hazards of flood probably increase in many parts of China,such as southeast coast area,southwest,northwest, some parts of northeast and inner Mongolia while the hazards of drought probably decrease in the North China Plain,the middle reaches of the Huanghe River and its southern adjacent area. This distribution is basically consistent with that of precipitation in warming periods in this century and that resulted from climatic model in the case of CO2 doubling.

Dryness-wetness change and regional differentiation of flood-drought disasters in Guangdong during 1480-1940AD

Based on the historical records of the drought and flood disasters during 1480-1940AD, this paper reconstructs the sequences of wetness index （WI） and drought and flood disasters. We find a good identical relationship between the fluctuation of WI sequence and the δ^18O record of the GISP2 ice core in Greenland, which shows an apparent monsoonal disposal pattern of moisture and temperature. By applying the Morlet Wavelet Transform Method to deal with the data, several apparent periodicities, such as 7-8a, 11-15a, 20-23a and ca 50a, are revealed, among which some can be attributed to the solar forcing. Based on results of Cluster Analysis of dry-wet changes, we resume the regional differentiation pattern of flood-drought disasters all over Guangdong during different climatic intervals in the LIA and, find the western and northern parts of Guangdong have undergone drastic changes in drought-flood regional differentiation, but the eastern part is relatively stable, and the area of the Pearl River Delta shows stable condition of more flood disasters.

The Impact of Climate Change Induced Extreme Events on Agriculture and Food Security: A Review on Nigeria

The study of the climate change and the effects of climate change induced extreme events on food security are fundamental for the sustainable development of agriculture globally. Climatic factors are the primary important factors affecting agricultural production. Furthermore, the world is now experiencing more frequent and intense droughts and floods in many agricultural regions which damage and at times destroy crops. The effects of climatic change on agriculture have triggered significant trend of research during the last decade globally in order to unfold the solutions to climate change induced extreme events on agriculture. Several studies have been conducted on effects of extreme events such as droughts and flooding induced by climate change on agriculture and food security. These effects include changes in crop and livestock yields as well as the economic consequences of these potential yield changes globally. Therefore, this study reviews the effects of extreme events, including floods and drought, caused by climate change on agriculture and food security with focus on Nigeria in particular. For the study, literatures were identified for review through a comprehensive search by using electronic and non-electronic databases to identify researches conducted on effects on climate change and extreme events on agricultural productivity. From the review, it shows that extreme events such as droughts and floods impact agriculture and food security. In order to mitigate the effects of climate change especially droughts and floods, on agricultural productivity, there is an urgent need to intensity efforts and researches on climate change to mitigate and adapt to the occurrences of these extreme events when necessary in Nigeria. Several mitigation and adaptation measures need to be implemented to mitigate the effects of extreme events on agricultural productivity and food security. These measures include practicing climate-smart agriculture, construction and improvement of drainage networks to effectively dispose of flood water in order to reduce the risks of flooding in urban agriculture and drought-resistant varieties of crops should be cultivated.

中国旱涝急转事件时空变化特征

【目的】旱涝急转事件造成的社会经济和生态环境影响严重,是我国发生频繁且广泛的一种复合型事件。明确我国旱涝急转事件发生的时空变化特征,可为地区制定防灾减灾措施提供科学依据。【方法】基于1961—2021年气象观测数据,使用Penman-Monteith模型计算潜在蒸散发,然后计算逐日的标准化降水蒸散指数(daily-SPEI),分流域对中国旱涝急转事件的频次、影响范围和趋势的变化特征进行分析。【结果】结果显示:(1)时间趋势上,1961—2021年中国受旱涝急转事件影响的范围以0.6%/10a的趋势增加,且平均每年有19.8%的范围发生旱涝急转事件。(2)空间分布上,旱涝急转事件主要分布在淮河流域、黄河流域、长江流域和松花江流域,事件发生频次在30次以上地区分别占流域总面积的63.1%、20.7%、15.0%、14.6%,事件频次最高达到53次。(3)中国旱涝急转事件存在明显的季节差异,主要发生在夏季事件发生频次在5次以上的空间范围占中国总面积的一半以上;其次是春季和秋季,事件发生频次在5次以上的空间范围占比均不足15%;冬季发生最少,事件发生频次在5次以下。【结论】结果表明:中国旱涝急转事件的影响范围整体呈增加趋势,中国中东部和东北部是旱涝急转事件发生频繁地区。研究结果可为旱涝急转事件的监测与应对提供科学基础。

2022年夏季湖南气候异常特征及主要气象灾害简析

利用2022年6—8月湖南省97个气象站点的气温和降水量实况数据以及NCEP/NCAR逐日再分析资料等,分析2022年夏季湖南省出现的异常气候现象及其时空分布特征和环流形势.结果表明:6月中纬度西风带低压槽活跃,湖南省在前期一直受强降水的影响,7—8月西太平洋的副热带高压西段异常加强(脊点偏西约50个经度),是造成2022年夏季湖南省气候异常的主要影响因子.

探析水文测报应对气象极端天气

水文中心在实际工作中做好汛期水文测报工作,应密切关注研究分析气象极端天气数据对水文测报的影响。近年来,我国气象极端天气多发,在实际防汛抗旱工作中,水文站始终要把分析气象极端天气作为水文测报预警启动的重要工作。在气象预警工作的基础上,各水文站要落实水文测报的各项准备工作,制定好汛前工作计划,从预警条件启动到实际水文测报,优化工作流程以便于取得更精准的水文测报信息,为防汛抗旱工作做出更大的贡献。

The 2020 Summer Floods and 2020/21 Winter Extreme Cold Surges in China and the 2020 Typhoon Season in the Western North Pacific

China experienced significant flooding in the summer of 2020 and multiple extreme cold surges during the winter of 2020/21.Additionally,the 2020 typhoon season had below average activity with especially quiet activity during the first half of the season in the western North Pacific(WNP).Sea surface temperature changes in the Pacific,Indian,and Atlantic Oceans all contributed to the heavy rainfall in China,but the Atlantic and Indian Oceans seem to have played dominant roles.Enhancement and movement of the Siberian High caused a wavier pattern in the jet stream that allowed cold polar air to reach southward,inducing cold surges in China.Large vertical wind shear and low humidity in the WNP were responsible for fewer typhoons in the first half of the typhoon season.Although it is known that global warming can increase the frequency of extreme weather and climate events,its influences on individual events still need to be quantified.Additionally,the extreme cold surge during 16–18 February 2021 in the United States shares similar mechanisms with the winter 2020/21 extreme cold surges in China.

2022年全球重大天气气候事件

2022年,全球平均温度比工业化前水平高出约1.15℃(±0.13℃),是第五暖年。全球海平面继续上升,且加速上升趋势明显。北极海冰面积低于常年值,南极海冰面积创下历史新低。巴基斯坦、韩国、印度、孟加拉国、澳大利亚东部、巴西和非洲中部和南部地区遭受暴雨洪涝;北非地区和东非大部分地区发生严重干旱;欧洲、中国、美国、日本、巴基斯坦和印度等地遭遇创纪录的高温热浪;北美和欧洲遭受寒流和暴风雪侵袭;强对流天气频繁袭击世界各地;全球共生成40个热带气旋,数量和强度均低于历史平均水平。成因分析表明,7月北半球副热带高压带异常强大以及欧洲上空持续的极强暖高压,西欧地区整个对流层盛行下沉气流,造成欧洲多地出现破纪录的高温热浪;7—8月西太平洋副热带高压异常强大且偏西,孟加拉湾地区东部的水汽输送路径折向印度北部和巴基斯坦,在南亚和东亚夏季风的共同作用下低层水汽辐合极为强盛,导致了极端降水事件的长时段维持和严重洪灾的发生。

秦巴山地气候变化特征与旱涝区域响应

[目的]气候变化对自然环境和人类活动产生重要影响,厘清全球变化背景下极端气候灾害发生的频次和强度对于维护人民生命财产安全具有重要意义。[方法]根据1970-2017年秦巴山地内102个气象站点的逐日数据,运用线性回归、Mann-Kendall非参数检验、反距离权重法(IDW)、Z指数法和Morlet小波变换等方法,分析近48年秦巴山地气候变化特征及西部大起伏高山区、秦岭大起伏高中山区、大巴山大起伏中山区和豫西汉中中山谷地4个地貌单元上的区域旱涝灾害响应研究。[结果]近48年来秦巴山地气温以0.3℃/10 a增加,降水以0.87 mm/10 a的速率增加,全区气候朝暖湿化趋势发展。研究时段内,不同地形区气温都呈上升趋势,但增加速率不同,大巴山大起伏中山区增速最大(0.7℃/10 a)、豫西汉中中山谷地最低(0.2℃/10 a),从降水量及变化趋势来看,大巴山大起伏中山区降水量明显高于其他地形区,变化倾向率最大(13.45 mm/10 a),西部大起伏高山区变化倾向率最低为0.06 mm/10 a。秦巴山地旱涝灾害发生的程度年际差异明显,且1970-2017年有加剧的趋势,4个区域旱涝灾害对气候变化的响应存在差异:大巴山大起伏中山区旱涝灾害对气候变化的响应表现为总体偏涝,涝灾出现的频率与强度均有加剧态势;豫西汉中中山谷地、秦岭大起伏高中山区及西部大起伏高山区总体表现为偏旱,旱灾频率和强度明显高于涝灾。[结论]1997-2017年秦巴山地呈暖湿化现象,极端气候事件的频率和强度呈增加趋势,研究结论为不同区域分类、分级制定水土保持规划提供依据。

A perspective on biochar for repairing damages in the soil-plant system caused by climate change-driven extreme weather events

There has been more than 75%rise in the number of extreme weather events such as drought and flood during 2000-2019 compared to 1980-1999 due to the adverse effects of climate change,causing significant deterioration of the soil and water quality.Simultaneously,the growing human population has been exerting pressure on available water and soil resources due to overuse or unplanned use.While greenhouse gas emissions have intensified,the fertility of agricultural soils has declined globally due to the exposure of soils to frequent flooding,desertification,and salinization(resulting from extreme weather events).The current review aims to give an overview of damages caused to the soil-plant system by extreme weather events and provide a perspective on how biochar can repair the damaged system.Biochar is known to improve soil fertility,increase crop productivity and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions via sustainable recycling of bio-waste.Beneficial properties of biochar such as alkaline pH,high cation exchange capacity,abundant surface functional groups,remarkable surface area,adequate porosity,excellent water holding capacity,and sufficient nutrient retention capacity can help repair the adverse effects of extreme weather events in the soil-plant system.This paper recommends some cautious future approaches that can propel biochar’s use in improving the soil-plant systems and promoting sustainable functioning of extreme weather-affected areas via mitigation of the adverse effects.

人工影响天气作业在气象防灾减灾中的作用分析

气象灾害会对人类社会和经济造成巨大的影响,而人工影响天气作业在一定程度上可以改变和调节天气状况,降低灾害风险和减轻灾害损失。分析了人工影响天气作业在预防洪涝灾害、控制风暴和台风、减轻冰雹危害、增加干旱地区的降水等方面的作用,并探讨了提高气象监测能力、增强天气预报精准性、提高气候模拟和预测能力、建立健全灾害监测与预警系统等措施,以期为提高防灾减灾能力提供科学支持。