Virtual Simulation System with Path-following Control for Lunar Rovers Moving on Rough Terrain

Virtual simulation technology is of great importance for the teleoperation of lunar rovers during the exploration phase, as well as the design of locomotion systems, performance evaluation, and control strategy verification during the R&D phase. The currently used simulation methods for lunar rovers have several disadvantages such as poor fidelity for wheel-soil interaction mechanics, difficulty in simulating rough terrains, and high complexity making it difficult to realize mobility control in simulation systems. This paper presents an approach for the construction of a virtual simulation system that integrates the features of 3D modeling, wheel-soil interaction mechanics, dynamics analysis, mobility control, and visualization for lunar rovers. Wheel-soil interaction experiments are carried out to test the forces and moments acted on a lunar rover’s wheel by the soil with a vertical load of 80 N and slip ratios of 0, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.6. The experimental results are referenced in order to set the parameters’ values for the PAC2002 tire model of the ADAMS/Tire module. In addition, the rough lunar terrain is simulated with 3DS Max software after analyzing its characteristics, and a data-transfer program is developed with Matlab to simulate the 3D reappearance of a lunar environment in ADAMS. The 3D model of a lunar rover is developed by using Pro/E software and is then imported into ADAMS. Finally, a virtual simulation system for lunar rovers is developed. A path-following control strategy based on slip compensation for a six-wheeled lunar rover prototype is researched. The controller is implemented by using Matlab/Simulink to carry out joint simulations with ADAMS. The designed virtual lunar rover could follow the planned path on a rough terrain. This paper can also provide a reference scheme for virtual simulation and performance analysis of rovers moving on rough lunar terrains.

Wheel slip-sinkage and its prediction model of lunar rover

In order to investigate wheel slip-sinkage problem, which is important for the design, control and simulation of lunar rovers, experiments were carried out with a wheel-soil interaction test system to measure the sinkage of three types of wheels in dimension with wheel lugs of different heights and numbers under a series of slip ratios (0-0.6). The curves of wheel sinkage versus slip ratio were obtained and it was found that the sinkage with slip ratio of 0.6 is 3-7 times of the static sinkage. Based on the experimental results, the slip-sinkage principle of lunar's rover lugged wheels (including the sinkage caused by longitudinal flow and side flow of soil, and soil digging of wheel lugs) was analyzed, and corresponding calculation equations were derived. All the factors that can cause slip sinkage were considered to improve the conventional wheel-soil interaction model, and a formula of changing the sinkage exponent with the slip ratio was established. Mathematical model for calculating the sinkage of wheel according to vertical load and slip ratio was developed. Calculation results show that this model can predict the slip-sinkage of wheel with high precision, making up the deficiency of Wong-Reece model that mainly reflects longitudinal slip-sinkage.

The penetrating depth analysis of Lunar Penetrating Radar onboard Chang＇e-3 rover

Lunar Penetrating Radar（LPR） has successfully been used to acquire a large amount of scientific data during its in-situ detection. The analysis of penetrating depth can help to determine whether the target is within the effective detection range and contribute to distinguishing useful echoes from noise.First, this study introduces two traditional methods, both based on a radar transmission equation, to calculate the penetrating depth. The only difference between the two methods is that the first method adopts system calibration parameters given in the calibration report and the second one uses high-voltage-off radar data. However, some prior knowledge and assumptions are needed in the radar equation and the accuracy of assumptions will directly influence the final results. Therefore, a new method termed the Correlation Coefficient Method（CCM） is provided in this study, which is only based on radar data without any a priori assumptions. The CCM can obtain the penetrating depth according to the different correlation between reflected echoes and noise. To be exact, there is a strong correlation in the useful reflected echoes and a random correlation in the noise between adjacent data traces. In addition, this method can acquire a variable penetrating depth along the profile of the rover, but only one single depth value can be obtained from traditional methods. Through a simulation, the CCM has been verified as an effective method to obtain penetration depth. The comparisons and analysis of the calculation results of these three methods are also implemented in this study. Finally, results show that the ultimate penetrating depth of Channel 1 and the estimated penetrating depth of Channel 2 range from 136.9 m to 165.5 m（ε_r = 6.6） and from 13.0 m to 17.5 m（ε_r = 2.3）, respectively.

Configuration Synthesis and Performance Evaluation Metrics of Lunar Rover Locomotion Systems

A method of topology synthesis based on graph theory and mechanism combination theory was applied to the configuration design of locomotion systems of lunar exploration rovers(LER).Through topology combination of wheel structural unit,suspension unit,and connecting device unit between suspension and load platform,some new locomotion system configurations were proposed and the metrics and indexes to evaluate the performance of the new locomotion system were analyzed.Performance evaluation and comparison between two LER with locomotion systems of different configurations were analyzed.The analysis results indicate that the new locomotion system configuration has good trafficability performance.

Mechanical Analysis and Performance Optimization for the Lunar Rover’s Vane-Telescopic Walking Wheel

It is well-known that optimizing the wheel system of lunar rovers is essential.However,this is a difficult task due to the complex terrain of the moon and limited resources onboard lunar rovers.In this study,an experimental prototype was set up to analyze the existing mechanical design of a lunar rover and improve its performance.First,a new vane-telescopic walking wheel was proposed for the lunar rover with a positive and negative quadrangle suspension,considering the complex terrain of the moon.Next,the performance was optimized under the limitations of preserving the slope passage and minimizing power consumption.This was achieved via analysis of the wheel force during movement.Finally,the effectiveness of the proposed method was demonstrated by several simulation experiments.The newly designed wheel can protrude on demand and reduce energy consumption;it can be used as a reference for lunar rover development engineering in China.

Configuration and kinematics analysis of locking-releasing mechanism for side-loaded lunar rover

In order to save space for storing precision equipments,lower the center of mass of Lander and reduce lunar rover's dimension constraint limited by mechanism of Lander,the locking-releasing mechanism of side-loaded lunar rover loaded outside Lander is presented,which is a kind of metamorphic mechanism.To ensure the working of this mechanism as the metamorphic process designed,configuration analysis of the locking-releasing mechanism is carried out,and topological structures are described by Huston lower numbered arrays.A kinematic mathematical model of the mechanism is established through homogeneous transformation matrix.The kinematic simulation validates the feasibility of the locking-releasing mechanism when the configurations are shifted from one to the other.

Kinematic modeling and analysis of novel eight-wheel lunar rover

A new kind of eight-wheel lunar rover is developed, which is a complex closed-chain system and has good capabilities of climbing slope, surmounting obstacles and adapting to uneven terrain. In this paper, the mechanical structure of the novel eight-wheel lunar rover is introduced, forward and inverse kinematic models of the rover are established according to the closed-chain coordinate transformation and instantaneous coincidence coordinate. Based on structural characteristics, its kinetic characteristics are analyzed. Wheel slippages are separated and calculated, and a method for closed-loop control modification using wheel slip estimation during the model establishment is proposed. The results can be applied to the motion control of lunar rover.

Calculation on the pitch angle of rocker of a rocker lunar rover in uneven terrain and path planning

For the concerted motion of rocker lunar rover, the pitch angle of rocker of a rocker lunar rover in uneven terrain must be calculated. According to the character of passive shape-shifting adaptive suspension of rocker lunar rover, the model of rocker lunar rover and the model of terrain were both simplified. The pitch angle of rocker was calculated using forward solving, reverse solving and the method of offsetting the curve of terrain respectively. Because of the banishment of the nonlinearity of equation sets of calculation by reverse solving, the calculation of the pitch angle based on reverse solving was programmed by means of MATLAB. Simulations were carried out by means of ADAMS. The result verified the validity of the calculation based on reverse solving. It provides the theoretical foundation for motion planning and path planning of rocker lunar rover. As applications of the calculation of pitch angle of rocker, the multi-attribute decision making of path based on the concerted motion planning and the predictive control on lunar rover based on the Markov prediction model were introduced.

Steering mechanical analysis for lunar rover wheel

Facing the requirement of establishing a steering mechanical model for the wheel configuration design,selection of steering motors, dynamic analysis and simulation of the lunar rover, shear force beneaththe steering wheel, bulldozing resistance acting on steering wheel rims and side surfaces respectively areconducted on the basis of the wheel-loose soil interaction. The quantitative relation between steering resistancemoment (SRM) and steering radius, dimension of the wheel, soil parameters is established. Tovalidate the model, a single-wheel test bed is employed to test the steering performance of a wheel with0.15735m radius and 0.165m width when the steering radius is 0.00m, 0.04m, 0.08m, 0.12m and0.16m, respectively. The SRM is approached asymptotically with the increasing steering angle and almostproportional to the steering radius. The theoretical results of SRM are compact with the experimental results,which shows that the steering model can predict the experimental results well.

Panoramic camera on the Yutu lunar rover of the Chang'e-3 mission

The Chang＇e-3 panoramic camera, which is composed of two cameras with identical functions, performances and interfaces, is installed on the lunar rover mast. It can acquire 3D images of the lunar surface based on the principle of binocular stereo vision. By rotating and pitching the mast, it can take several photographs of the patrol area. After stitching these images, panoramic images of the scenes will be obtained.Thus the topography and geomorphology of the patrol area and the impact crater, as well as the geological structure of the lunar surface, will be analyzed and studied.In addition, it can take color photographs of the lander using the Bayer color coding principle. It can observe the working status of the lander by switching between static image mode and dynamic video mode with automatic exposure time. The focal length of the lens on the panoramic camera is 50 mm and the field of view is 19.7？umination and viewing conditions, the largest signal-to-no×14.5？.Under the best illise ratio of the panoramic camera is 44 d B. Its static modulation transfer function is 0.33. A large number of ground testing experiments and on-orbit imaging results show that the functional interface of the panoramic camera works normally. The image quality of the panoramic camera is satisfactory. All the performance parameters of the panoramic camera satisfy the design requirements.

Study on Running Performance of Flexible Wheels for Lunar Rovers： Relation between Stress Distribution of Flexible Wheel and Running Performance

On lunar exploration missions, the rovers which can move and explore directly are considered by various agency like NASA （National Aeronautics and Space Administration）, JAXA （Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency）, ESA （European Space Agency）. Lunar rovers are required to move on rough terrains such as craters and rear cliffs where it is scientifically very important to explore. However, there is a problem that the rovers have possibility of stack because of the lunar surface is covered with loose soil named Regolith. Therefore, this paper investigates a mechanism of kinetic behavior between the wheels of the exploration rovers and loose soil. And then, this paper proposed a flexible wheel to solve like that problems. The flexible wheel has the surface which can be changed flexibly toward rough terrain. Running experiments on loose soil which imitated regolith were carried out to observe the traversability of the flexible wheel using slip ratio. Traversality of flexible wheel was better than the circular rigid wheel. The authors believe that stress distribution is important. The stress distribution of the flexible wheels is horizontally long and stress value is small. However, the stress distribution can be changed by loaded more weight. Therefore, the relationship between the stress and the running performance was considered using this differential stress distribution. In experiments, the authors used the flexible wheel with simple structure （3 limbs）. From these considerations, the relationship between the stress of the flexible wheel and the running performance was described.

3D-Aided-Analysis Tool for Lunar Rover

3D-Aided-Analysis Tool （3DAAT） which is a virtual reality system is built up in this paper. 3DAAT is integrated with kinematics and dynamics model of rover as well as real lunar surface terrain mode. Methods of modeling which are proposed in this paper include constructing lunar surface, constructing 3D model of lander and rover, building up kinematic model of rover body. Photogrammetry technique and the remote sensing information are used to generate the terrain model of lunar surface. According to the implementation result, 3DAAT is an effective assist system for making exploration plan and analyzing the status of rover.

China Will Launch A Spanish Lunar Rover

China Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC) and Barcelona Galactic Suite Moon Race S.L (GSMR) signed a launch contract in Paris to launch a Spanish lunar rover with a LM-2C launch vehicle. According to the contract, CGWIC will provide the launch service for the lunar rover developed by the Barcelona

月球车驾驶运动感知特性研究

航天员月球车驾驶技能地面训练需要模拟逼真的运动感知特性,其关键在于掌握地面与月面驾驶运动感知的差异。笔者建立了高度逼真的月球车驾驶运动仿真场景,模拟月球车驾驶运动的地月差异;开发了以空间定向模型为框架的人体运动感知软件,仿真比较了月球车驾驶前向运动感知的地月差异。结果表明,月面环境下月球车加速度变化范围减小、加减速缓慢且易发生侧滑;视觉信息受限时动态俯仰角感知显著大于地面,而静态俯仰角感知则大大降低;这种地月差异在加入视觉信息后大幅度减少。揭示了月面与地面驾驶运动感知特性的差异,为月球车驾驶运动模拟策略的优化提供了依据。

月球车与月壤交互作用的离散元-多体动力学耦合建模

目前,对于散体颗粒物质与复杂机械系统的耦合作用研究,面临着跨尺度、计算规模庞大以及非光滑表面的接触检测困难等问题。为了探究月球车与月壤交互作用,首先对颗粒-多体耦合系统动力学建模与接触算法进行研究。分别用离散元方法(discrete element method, DEM)和多体动力学(multibody dynamics, MBD)笛卡尔方法建立了散体球形颗粒和含约束多体系统的动力学模型,并基于Hertz-Mindlin模型计算颗粒与刚体的接触力,在此基础上给出顺序耦合策略,建立了离散元和多体耦合的动力学模型。针对月球车齿状车轮的非光滑表面与颗粒之间接触检测规模庞大的问题,提出了非光滑形状物体的分区域局部检测方法,降低了局部检测的规模。通过对比圆柱体冲击颗粒的试验和仿真结果,验证了离散元-多体耦合模型的准确性。在耦合动力学建模和接触算法研究的基础上,对具有齿状车轮的月球车在月壤上行驶过程进行动力学仿真,研究不同驱动参数下的系统动力学特性以及不同轮胎形状对行驶运动的影响,研究结果表明,交错形轮齿的月球车相较直齿形轮齿前进距离多14%,前进效率较高,该研究对月球车的设计具有理论指导意义。

一种多源测距与视觉惯性融合的月球车定位方法

针对月球车月面探测活动任务中对高精度定位的需求,当前视觉惯性定位方法存在误差累积,并且在缺乏先验环境信息时无法消除,基于三角测量原理的无线电定位方法可以通过测量接收端到至少三个不同发射端的距离来确定目标物体位置,但需要架设三台以上基站,因此难以满足月面环境下大范围定位的需求。文章提出了一种基于基站无线测距和视觉惯性里程计融合定位方法,以解决上述定位手段存在的问题。该方法首先利用视觉惯性里程计构建的环境模型将WIFI、UHF和UWB三类无线电基站测距信息进行融合,然后将测距结果和视觉IMU信息进行位置联合解算来确定月球车位置,最后在Matlab和Gazebo软件平台上进行仿真验证,在距离基站最远行进1500米的条件下实现了0.92米定位误差。实验结果表明,该方法能够在满足月面探测任务对于精准定位的需求。

月球车长距离可达性分析与路径规划方法研究

针对目前全月范围高分辨率数字高程模型缺乏的现状,提出一种高分辨影像与全月数字高程模型结合的分级路径规划方案。首先,基于全月中等分辨率(20 m)数字高程模型进行全局初始路径规划;然后,利用米级的遥感影像构建初始路径周围的正射影像,基于构建的高分正射影像进行路径的优化,获得最后的长距离路径规划。以中丰富海、西南丰富海及斯内利厄斯月谷等具有科学价值的区域综合起来作为大范围实验区进行长距离可达性分析与路径规划实验,并通过局部的高分辨率高程模型进行规划结果验证。实验结果表明:该方法能在高分数字高程模型受限的情况下,保证月球车路径规划的可靠性,研究可为中国新型月球车的设计、任务论证及后续的工程实施提供关键技术支撑。

月面巡视器太阳能帆板功率衰减特性研究

太阳能帆板的功率衰减特性分析,对地外天体表面探测器的功率平衡、电源系统健康管理以及长寿命在轨管理有重要意义。通过对月面巡视器在轨运行第2到11月昼的电流遥测进行研究,提出了一种基于有限遥测的太阳能帆板功率衰减特性分析方法。首先利用一种滞环的方法对大量的电流遥测进行数据处理;然后进行日月距离和太阳入射角的归一化,通过数据拟合计算,得出落月第一年太阳能帆板功率衰减约为2 5%,并利用巡视器历次月昼唤醒时刻的太阳入射角变化情况验证了该方法的有效性,对地外天体的太阳能帆板功率衰减特性计算提供一定参考。

Lunar Penetrating Radar onboard the Chang'e-3 mission

Lunar Penetrating Radar （LPR） is one of the important scientific instru- ments onboard the Chang＇e-3 spacecraft. Its scientific goals are the mapping of lunar regolith and detection of subsurface geologic structures. This paper describes the goals of the mission, as well as the basic principles, design, composition and achievements of the LPR. Finally, experiments on a glacier and the lunar surface are analyzed.

Numerical method for estimation of kinematical parameters for articulated rovers on loose rough terrain

Based on the study of passive articulated rover,a complete suspension kinematics model from wheel to inertial reference frame is presented,which uses D-H method of manipulator and presentation with Euler angle of pitch,roll and yaw.An improved contact model is adopted aimed at the loose and rough lunar terrain.Using this kinematics model and numerical continuous and discrete Newton's method with iterative factor,the numerical method for estimation of kinematical parameters of articulated rovers on loose and rough terrain is constructed.To demonstrate this numerical method,an example of two torsion bar rocker-bogie lunar rover with eight wheels is presented.Simulation results show that the numerical method for estimation of kinematical parameters of articulated rovers based on improved contact model can improve the precision of kinematical estimation on loose and rough terrain and decrease errors caused by contact models established based on general hypothesis.