A sensitivity study of the WRF model in offshore wind modeling over the Baltic Sea

Accurate wind modeling is important for wind resources assessment and wind power forecasting. To improve the WRF model configuration for the offshore wind modeling over the Baltic Sea, this study performed a sensitivity study of the WRF model to multiple model configurations, including domain setup,grid resolution, sea surface temperature, land surface data, and atmosphere-wave coupling. The simulated offshore wind was evaluated against LiDAR observations under different wind directions, atmospheric stabilities, and sea status. Generally, the simulated wind profiles matched observations, despite systematic underestimations. Strengthening the forcing from the reanalysis data through reducing the number of nested domains played the largest role in improving wind modeling. Atmosphere-wave coupling further improved the simulated wind, especially under the growing and mature sea conditions.Increasing the vertical resolution, and updating the sea surface temperature and the land surface information only had a slight impact, mainly visible during very stable conditions. Increasing the horizontal resolution also only had a slight impact, most visible during unstable conditions. Our study can help to improve the wind resources assessment and wind power forecasting over the Baltic Sea.

Crosswind Stability Evaluation of High-Speed Train Using Different Wind Models

Different wind models are being used for the operational safety evaluation of a high-speed train exposed to crosswinds. However, the methodology for simulating natural wind is of substantial importance in the wind-train system, and different simplified forms of natural wind result in different levels of accuracy. The purpose of the research in this paper is to investigate the effects of different wind models on the operational safety evaluation of high-speed trains. First, three wind models, namely, steady wind model, gust wind model, and turbulent wind model, are constructed. Following this, the algorithms for computing the aerodynamic loads using the wind models are described. A multi-body dynamic model of a vehicle is then set up using the commercial software "Simpack" for investigating the dynamic behavior of a railway vehicle exposed to wind loads. The rollover risks corresponding to each wind model are evaluated by applying the definition of characteristic wind curves (CWC). The results indicate that the CWC computed using the gust wind model is marginally higher than that computed using the turbulent wind model;the difference is less than 1%. With regard to the steady wind model, the assurance coefficient substantially affects the final CWC. A reasonable agreement of CWC between the steady wind model and turbulent wind model can be obtained by applying an "appropriate value" of the assurance coefficient. This study included a systematic analysis of the operational safety evaluation results using different wind models;the analysis can serve as a reference basis for different engineering accuracy requirements.

Evaluation of a Micro-scale Wind Model's Performance over Realistic Building Clusters Using Wind Tunnel Experiments

The simulation performance over complex building clusters of a wind simulation model（Wind Information Field Fast Analysis model, WIFFA） in a micro-scale air pollutant dispersion model system（Urban Microscale Air Pollution dispersion Simulation model, UMAPS） is evaluated using various wind tunnel experimental data including the CEDVAL（Compilation of Experimental Data for Validation of Micro-Scale Dispersion Models） wind tunnel experiment data and the NJU-FZ experiment data（Nanjing University-Fang Zhuang neighborhood wind tunnel experiment data）. The results show that the wind model can reproduce the vortexes triggered by urban buildings well, and the flow patterns in urban street canyons and building clusters can also be represented. Due to the complex shapes of buildings and their distributions, the simulation deviations/discrepancies from the measurements are usually caused by the simplification of the building shapes and the determination of the key zone sizes. The computational efficiencies of different cases are also discussed in this paper. The model has a high computational efficiency compared to traditional numerical models that solve the Navier–Stokes equations, and can produce very high-resolution（1–5 m） wind fields of a complex neighborhood scale urban building canopy（～ 1 km ×1km） in less than 3 min when run on a personal computer.

Modeling Analysis of Factors Influencing Wind-Borne Seed Dispersal: A Case Study on Dandelion

A weed is a plant that thrives in areas of human disturbance, such as gardens, fields, pastures, waysides, and waste places where it is not intentionally cultivated. Dispersal affects community dynamics and vegetation response to global change. The process of seed disposal is influenced by wind, which plays a crucial role in determining the distance and probability of seed dispersal. Existing models of seed dispersal consider wind direction but fail to incorporate wind intensity. In this paper, a novel seed disposal model was proposed in this paper, incorporating wind intensity based on relevant references. According to various climatic conditions, including temperate, arid, and tropical regions, three specific regions were selected to establish a wind dispersal model that accurately reflects the density function distribution of dispersal distance. Additionally, dandelions growth is influenced by a multitude of factors, encompassing temperature, humidity, climate, and various environmental variables that necessitate meticulous consideration. Based on Factor Analysis model, which completely considers temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, wind, and land carrying capacity, a conclusion is presented, indicating that the growth of seeds is primarily influenced by plant attributes and climate conditions, with the former exerting a relatively stronger impact. Subsequently, the remaining two plants were chosen based on seed weight, yielding consistent conclusion.

Underestimated relationship between westerly wind bursts and ENSO in CMIP6 models

观测表明,热带太平洋的西风爆发(WWBs)在厄尔尼诺南方涛动(ENSO)的发生,发展和多样性中起着关键作用.因此,在耦合模式中真实地再现WWBs对于改进ENSO的模拟和预测有重要意义.在本研究中,作者发现CMIP6的耦合模式的集合平均能很好地再现了热带太平洋WWB发生频率的纬向分布及其年际变动.然而,大多数CMIP6模型极大低估了WWB和ENSO的线性关系.这可能是因为大多数CMIP6模式里海气耦合强度低于观测:海气耦合强度与WWB-ENSO关系的模式间相关系数高达0.91.

基于PSModel的海上风电场全电磁暂态建模与仿真

开发有效的风机电磁暂态模型是进行海上风电并网研究的基础。根据不同生产厂家所提供的直驱风机模型,提出了一种基于厂家黑盒模型的直驱风机电磁暂态建模方法。利用厂家所提供的模型测试数据解析风机的故障响应特性,推导了不同厂家在电压故障下有功和无功功率响应表达式,包括故障期间的穿越控制过程及不同过程间的暂态切换策略。提出了加权平均压降的风电场等值方法,采用自主研发的全电磁暂态仿真软件(power system model,PSModel)对我国广东某海上风电场进行全电磁暂态建模。根据稳态潮流及暂态特性结果验证了模型可通过系统测试,且有效实现了海上风电场的全电磁暂态建模,从而为该风场接入大电网后的安全稳定分析提供了研究基础。

A hybrid model for numerical wave forecasting and its implementation-Ⅰ.The wind wave model

The authors make an endeavor to explain why a new hybrid wave model is here proposed when several such models have already been in operation and the so- called third generation wave modej is proving attractive. This part of the paper is devoted to the wind wave model. Both deep and shallow water models have been developed, the former being actually a special case of the latter when water depth is great. The deep water model is exceptionally simple in form. Significant wave height is the only prognostic variable. In comparison with the usual methods to compute the energy input and dissipations empirically or by 'tuning', the proposed model has the merit that the effects of all source terms are combined into one term which is computed through empirical growth relations for significant waves, these relations being, relatively speaking, easier and more reliable to obtain than those for the source terms in the spectral energy balance equation. The discrete part of the model and the implementation of the model as a whole will be discussed in the second part of the present paper.

Comparative analyses of current three-dimensional numerical solar wind models

We present a comparative study of the most advanced three-dimensional time-dependent numerical simulation models of solar wind. These models can be classified into two categories:(I) theoretical, empirical and numerically based models and(II) self-consistent multi-dimensional numerical magnetohydrodynamic(MHD) models. The models of Category I are used to separately describe the solar wind solution in two plasma flows regions: transonic/trans-Alfvénic and supersonic/super-Alfvénic, respectively. Models of Category II construct a complete, single, numerical solar wind solution through subsonic/sub-Alfvénic region into supersonic/super-Alfvénic region. The Wang-Sheeley-Arge(WSA)/ENLIL in CISM is the most successful space weather model that belongs to Category I, and the Block-Adaptive-Tree-Solarwind-Roe-Upwind-Scheme(BATS-R-US) code in SWMF(Space Weather Modeling Framework) and the solar-interplanetary conservative element solution element MHD(SIP-CESE MHD) model in SWIM(Space Weather Integrated Model) are the most commonly-used models that belong to Category II. We review the structures of their frameworks, the main results for solar wind background studies that are essential for solar transient event studies, and discuss the common features and differences between these two categories of solar wind models. Finally, we conclude that the transition of these two categories of models to operational use depends on the availability of computational resources at reasonable cost and point out that the models' prediction capabilities may be improved by employing finer computational grids, incorporating more observational data and by adding more physical constraints to the models.

Development of wind-energy modeling technology and standards

To ensure the stable operation of power systems with large proportions of wind power,China has published a series of national,industry,and enterprise standards for wind power.The increase in the number of standards and the expansion of their application scope have given rise to a situation where multiple standards overlap and conflict with regard to the establishment of models and their applicability,resulting in unclear standard application scenarios.Therefore,it is imperative to analyze the development of wind-turbine and wind-farm modeling,along with the relevant standards.This paper presents the methods for wind-turbine modeling,the equivalent model of wind farms based on the general model of wind turbines,and the technical provisions and application scenarios involved in the relevant domestic and international standards.The adaptability of the relevant standards is examined.The results of this study are helpful for advancing wind power generation in China and ensuring the safe and stable operation of large-scale wind power systems.

Application of a new wind driving force model in soil wind erosion area of northern China

The shear stress generated by the wind on the land surface is the driving force that results in the wind erosion of the soil.It is an independent factor influencing soil wind erosion.The factors related to wind erosivity,known as submodels,mainly include the weather factor(WF)in revised wind erosion equation(RWEQ),the erosion submodel(ES)in wind erosion prediction system(WEPS),as well as the drift potential(DP)in wind energy environmental assessment.However,the essential factors of WF and ES contain wind,soil characteristics and surface coverings,which therefore results in the interdependence between WF or ES and other factors(e.g.,soil erodible factor)in soil erosion models.Considering that DP is a relative indicator of the wind energy environment and does not have the value of expressing wind to induce shear stress on the surface.Therefore,a new factor is needed to express accurately wind erosivity.Based on the theoretical basis that the soil loss by wind erosion(Q)is proportional to the shear stress of the wind on the soil surface,a new model of wind driving force(WDF)was established,which expresses the potential capacity of wind to drive soil mass in per unit area and a period of time.Through the calculations in the typical area,the WDF,WF and DP are compared and analyzed from the theoretical basis,construction goal,problem-solving ability and typical area application;the spatial distribution of soil wind erosion intensity was concurrently compared with the spatial distributions of the WDF,WF and DP values in the typical area.The results indicate that the WDF is better to reflect the potential capacity of wind erosivity than WF and DP,and that the WDF model is a good model with universal applicability and can be logically incorporated into the soil wind erosion models.

VALIDATION OF NEAR-SURFACE WINDS OBTAINED BY A HYBRID WRF/CALMET MODELING SYSTEM OVER A COASTAL ISLAND WITH COMPLEX TERRAIN

The results from a hybrid approach that combines a mesoscale meteorological model with a diagnostic model to produce high-resolution wind fields in complex coastal topography are evaluated.The diagnostic wind model(California Meteorological Model,CALMET) with 100-m horizontal spacing was driven with outputs from the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model to obtain near-surface winds for the 1-year period from 12 September 2003 to 11 September 2004.Results were compared with wind observations at four sites.Traditional statistical scores,including correlation coefficients,standard deviations(SDs) and mean absolute errors(MAEs),indicate that the wind estimates from the WRF/CALMET modeling system are produced reasonably well.The correlation coefficients are relatively large,ranging from 0.5 to 0.7 for the zonal wind component and from 0.75 to 0.85 for the meridional wind component.MAEs for wind speed range from 1.5 to 2.0 m s-1 at 10 meters above ground level(AGL) and from 2.0 to 2.5 m s-1 at 60 m AGL.MAEs for wind direction range from 30 to 40 degrees at both levels.A spectral decomposition of the time series of wind speed shows positive impacts of CALMET in improving the mesoscale winds.Moreover,combining the CALMET model with WRF significantly improves the spatial variability of the simulated wind fields.It can be concluded that the WRF/CALMET modeling system is capable of providing a detailed near-surface wind field,but the physics in the diagnostic CALMET model needs to be further improved.

An Elliptical Wind Field Model of Typhoons

An elliptical wind field model of typhoons is put forward based on the characteristics of the typhoon wind fields occurring in the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. By contrasting it with the circular typhoon wind field model, it is found that the elliptical model can adequately represent the real wind field and trace the process of a typhoon storm surge. The numerically simulated results of storm surges by using the elliptical model are in good agreement with the observations and markedly better than those by using the circular model.

Projections of Wind Changes for 21st Century in China by Three Regional Climate Models

This paper examines the capability of three regional climate models (RCMs), i.e., RegCM3 (the International Centre for Theoretical Physics Regional Climate Model), PRECIS (Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies) and CMM5 (the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-the National Center for Atmospheric Research of USA, NCAR Mesoscale Model) to simulate the near-surface-layer winds (10 m above surface) all over China in the late 20th century. Results suggest that like global climate models (GCMs), these RCMs have the certain capability of imitating the distribution of mean wind speed and fail to simulate the greatly weakening wind trends for the past 50 years in the country. However, RCMs especially RegCM3 have the better capability than that of GCMs to simulate the distribution and change feature of mean wind speed. In view of their merits, these RCMs were used to project the variability of near-surface-layer winds over China for the 21st century. The results show that 1) summer mean wind speed for 2020-2029 will be lower compared to those in 1990-1999 in most area of China; 2) annual and winter mean wind speed for 2081-2100 will be lower than those of 1971-1990 in the whole China; and 3) the changes of summer mean wind speed for 2081-2100 are uncertain. As a result, although climate models are absolutely necessary for projecting climate change to come, there are great uncertainties in projections, especially for wind speed, and these issues need to be further explored.

Asymptotically Optimal Scenario Analysis and Wait-and-See Model for Optimal Power Flow With Wind Power

精确模拟风功率分布的场景,有效求解反映风电随机性的最优潮流模型,对大规模风电并网的经济调度、质量控制及安全运行均具有重要意义。引入风电随机变量,建立最优潮流的＂wait-and-see＂（WS-OPF）模型;采用优于其他指标的瓦瑟斯坦（Wasserstein）距离为衡量指标,形成与风功率概率分布最优近似的场景模型,生成渐近最优场景,获得潮流分布及机组最优出力等指导调度安全经济运行的重要信息。最后,以IEEE 30和IEEE 300系统为例,对比各种距离指标的模拟精度,验证Wasserstein距离的优良性;同时,与不考虑风电随机性的模型相比,WS-OPF模型能更好地模拟风功率随机特性,提供与实际发生的风功率相近的调度方案,从而合理地规避风电接入电网的风险,提高风电的消纳能力。

Wake Numerical Simulation of Wind Field Based on Two Modified Wind Engineering Models

With the assumption of the Park model that the wake region is in linear expansion and the cross-wind is in multinomial and Gaussian distribution in wake region,one develops the Park-polynomial model and the ParkGaussian model to numerically simulate the wake flow field for a single wind turbine.Compared with the measured data of wind farm and the wind tunnel test,it shows that the prediction precision of wake field has been improved obviously under the modified initial wake radius.Moreover,both of the newly modified two models could well simulate the wind velocity in wake region,because the predicted results is approximately consistent with the test result,and the cross-wind distribution conforms to that of the real flow field.The two models have still inherited many advantages of engineering models,such as simple form,easy-to-code,and high computational efficiency.Particularly,the Park-Gaussian model is the best in overall performance among them.

Analysis of Observed and Modelled Near-Surface Wind Extremes over the Sub-Arctic Northeast Pacific

Wind speed extremes in the sub-Arctic realm of the North-East Pacific region were investigated through extreme value analysis of wind speed obtained from wind simulations of the COSMO-CLM (Consortium for Small-scale Modelling, climate version) mesoscale model, as well as using observed data. The analysis showed that the set of wind speed extremes obtained from observations is a mixture of two different subsets each neatly described by the Weibull distribution. Using special metaphoric terminology, they are labelled as “Black Swans” and “Dragons”. The “Dragons” are responsible for strongest extremes. It has been shown that both reanalysis and GCM (general circulation model) data have no “Dragons”. This means that such models underestimate wind speed maxima, and the important circulation process generating the anomalies is not simulated. The COSMO-CLM data have both “Black Swans” and “Dragons”. This evidence provides a clue that an atmospheric model with a detailed spatial resolution (we used in this work the data from domain with 13.2 km spatial resolution) does reproduce the special mechanism responsible for the generation of the largest wind speed extremes. However, a more thorough analysis shows that the differences in the parameters of the cumulative distribution functions are still significant. The ratio between the modelled Dragons and Black Swans can reach up to only 10%. It is much less than 30%, which was the level established for observations.

Wavelet-Based Nonstationary Wind Speed Model in Dongting Lake Cable-Stayed Bridge

The wind-rain induced vibration phenomena in the Dongting Lake Bridge (DLB) can be observed every year, and the field measurements of wind speed data of the bridge are usually nonstationary. Nonstationary wind speed can be decomposed into a deterministic time-varying mean wind speed and a zero-mean stationary fluctuating wind speed component. By using wavelet transform (WT), the time-varying mean wind speed is extracted and a nonstationary wind speed model is proposed in this paper. The wind characteristics of turbulence intensity, integral scale and probability distribution of the bridge are calculated from the typical wind samples recorded by the two anemometers installed on the DLB using the proposed nonstationary wind speed model based on WT. The calculated results are compared with those calculated by the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and traditional approaches. The compared results indicate that the wavelet-based nonstationary wind speed model is more reasonable and appropriate than the EMD-based nonstationary and traditional stationary models for characterizing wind speed in analysis of wind-rain-induced vibration of cables.

NUMERICAL MODELLING OF THREE-DIMENSION CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND-DRIVEN CURRENT IN THE BOHAI SEA

Three- dimension (3-D) wind-driven currents in the Bohai Sea in both winter and summer are calculated by using a 3- D barotropic steady model, and the results are consistent with observed flow char -acteristics. Based on the results, 3- D characteristics of flow, currents at different depths, compensated flow in the lower layer , long and narrow alongshore current, the area of upwelling and downwelling, main circulation in vertical profile, and the current in Bohai Strait are discussed.

Non-Gaussian Lagrangian Stochastic Model for Wind Field Simulation in the Surface Layer

Wind field simulation in the surface layer is often used to manage natural resources in terms of air quality,gene flow(through pollen drift),and plant disease transmission(spore dispersion).Although Lagrangian stochastic(LS)models describe stochastic wind behaviors,such models assume that wind velocities follow Gaussian distributions.However,measured surface-layer wind velocities show a strong skewness and kurtosis.This paper presents an improved model,a non-Gaussian LS model,which incorporates controllable non-Gaussian random variables to simulate the targeted non-Gaussian velocity distribution with more accurate skewness and kurtosis.Wind velocity statistics generated by the non-Gaussian model are evaluated by using the field data from the Cooperative Atmospheric Surface Exchange Study,October 1999 experimental dataset and comparing the data with statistics from the original Gaussian model.Results show that the non-Gaussian model improves the wind trajectory simulation by stably producing precise skewness and kurtosis in simulated wind velocities without sacrificing other features of the traditional Gaussian LS model,such as the accuracy in the mean and variance of simulated velocities.This improvement also leads to better accuracy in friction velocity(i.e.,a coupling of three-dimensional velocities).The model can also accommodate various non-Gaussian wind fields and a wide range of skewness–kurtosis combinations.Moreover,improved skewness and kurtosis in the simulated velocity will result in a significantly different dispersion for wind/particle simulations.Thus,the non-Gaussian model is worth applying to wind field simulation in the surface layer.

Model of DFIG Wind Farm and Study on Its LVRT Capability

As a typical clean and renewable energy, wind power is becoming more and more widely used in electrical industry. However, its characteristics of random and intermittent have brought serious problems to the power system, such as voltage fluctuation and insufficient reactive power. Based on the K-means clustering algorithm, this paper classifies the doubly-fed induction generators （DFIG） according to the operation of propeller pitch angle control. At the same time, to obtain the optimal parameter, advanced particle swarm optimization （PSO） is used. Then the dynamic model of DFIG under the network fault condition is built. What is more, the role that crowbar circuit plays in low voltage ride through （LVRT） is discussed. Finally, simulations in DigSILENT verify the model.