A distributed on-demand bandwidth-constrained multicast routing protocol for wireless ad hoc networks

To meet the bandwidth requirement for the multicasting data flow in ad hoc networks, a distributed on- demand bandwidth-constrained multicast routing （BCMR） protocol for wireless ad hoc networks is proposed. With this protocol, the resource reservation table of each node will record the bandwidth requirements of data flows, which access itself, its neighbor nodes and hidden nodes, and every node calculates the remaining available bandwidth by deducting the bandwidth reserved in the resource reservation table from the total available bandwidth of the node. Moreover, the BCMR searches in a distributed manner for the paths with the shortest delay conditioned by the bandwidth constraint. Simulation results demonstrate the good performance of BCMR in terms of packet delivery reliability and the delay. BCMR can meet the requirements of real time communication and can be used in the multicast applications with low mobility in wireless ad hoc networks.

An Energy Based Dynamic AODV Routing Protocol in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

In recent years,with the rapid development of the Internet and wireless communication technology,wireless Ad hoc networks have received more attention.Due to the limited transmission range and energy of nodes in Ad hoc networks,it is important to establish a reliable and energy-balanced transmission path in Ad hoc networks.This paper proposes an energy-based dynamic routing protocol based on the existing AODV routing protocol,which has the following two aspects of improvement:(1)In the route discovery process,a node selects a suitable route from the minimum energy consumption route and the energy-balanced route designed in this paper according to a“Mark”bit that representing remaining energy of a node.(2)Based on(1),a route interruption update strategy was proposed to restart the route discovery process when node energy was used excessively.Simulation results demonstrate that compared with AODV and other existing routing protocols,proposed algorithm can reduce network energy consumption and balance node energy,thus extending the network lifetime.

Route maintenance of on-demand routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks

In mobile ad hoc networks （MANETs）, if a mnltihop route breaks, route maintenance is typically performed to establish a new route which causes high control overhead and long packet delay. To decrease the time of recovery and the overhead of maintenance, a new route maintenance mechanism in which the maintenance is confined to the vicinity of the broken link is proposed. This mechanism patches broken route through some other nodes in which only nodes near the broken link（s） may need to be substituted and the rest of nodes can be retained on the route. The broken link can be repaired without considering its relative position in the whole path, so the abihty of dealing with hnk failure is improved obviously. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy improves network performance significantly, such as in merits of control overhead and packet delay.

A Secure and Pragmatic Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad hoc Networks

An ad hoc network is a group of wireless mobile computers(or nodes),in which individual nodes cooperate by forwarding packets for each other to allow nodes to communicate beyond direct wireless transmission range.Because of node mobility and power limitations,the network topology changes frequently.Routing protocol plays an important role in the ad hoc network.A recent trend in ad hoc network routing is the reactive on-demand philosophy where routes are established only when required.As an optimization for the current Dynamic Source Routing Protocol,a secure and pragmatic routes selection scheme based on Reputation Systems was proposed.We design the Secure and Pragmatic Routing protocol and implement simulation models using GloMoSim.Simulation results show that the Secure and Pragmatic Routing protocol provides better experimental results on packet delivery ratio,power consumption and system throughput than Dynamic Source Routing Protocol.

Reliable adaptive multicast protocol in wireless Ad hoc networks

In wireless ad hoe network environments, every link is wireless and every node is mobile. Those features make data lost easily as well as multicasting inefficient and unreliable. Moreover, Efficient and reliable multicast in wireless ad hoe network is a difficult issue. It is a major challenge to transmission delays and packet losses due to link changes of a multicast tree at the provision of high delivery ratio for each packet transmission in wireless ad hoe network environment. In this paler, we propose and evaluate Reliable Adaptive Multicast Protocol （RAMP） based on a relay node concept. Relay nodes are placed along the multieast tree. Data recovery is done between relay nodes. RAMP supports a reliable multicasting suitable for mobile ad hoe network by reducing the number of packet retransmissions. We compare RAMP with SRM （Scalable Reliable Multicast）. Simulation results show that the RAMP has high delivery ratio and low end-to-end delay for packet transmsission.

Joint channel assignment and cross-layer routing protocol for multi-radio multi-channel Ad Hoc networks

To study multi-radio multi-channel （MR-MC） Ad Hoc networks based on 802.11, an efficient cross-layer routing protocol with the function of joint channel assignment, called joint channel assignment and cross-layer routing （JCACR）, is presented. Firstly, this paper introduces a new concept called channel utilization percentage （CUP）, which is for measuring the contention level of different channels in a node’s neighborhood, and deduces its optimal value for determining whether a channel is overloaded or not. Then, a metric parameter named channel selection metric （CSM） is designed, which actually reffects not only the channel status but also corresponding node’s capacity to seize it. JCACR evaluates channel assignment by CSM, performs a local optimization by assigning each node a channel with the smaller CSM value, and changes the working channel dynamically when the channel is overloaded. Therefore, the network load balancing can be achieved. In addition, simulation shows that, when compared with the protocol of weighted cumulative expected transfer time （WCETT）, the new protocol can improve the network throughput and reduce the end-to-end average delay with fewer overheads.

Distributed QoS multicast routing protocol in ad hoc networks

Quality of service （QoS） routing and multicasting protocols in ad hoc networks are face with the challenge of delivering data to destinations through multihop routes in the presence of node movements and topology changes. The multicast routing problem with multiple QoS constraints is discussed, which may deal with the delay, bandwidth and cost metrics, and describes a network model for researching the ad hoc networks QoS multicast routing problem. It presents a distributed QoS multicast routing protocol （DQMRP）. The proof of correctness and complenty analysis of the DQMRP are also given. Simulation results show that the multicast tree optimized by DQMRP is better than other protocols and is fitter for the network situations with frequently changed status and the realtime multimedia application. It is an available approach to multicast routing decision with multiple QoS constraints.

Component based ant routing protocols analysis over mobile ad hoc networks

To deeply exploit the mechanisms of ant colony optimization （ACO） applied to develop routing in mobile ad hoe networks （MANETS）,some existing representative ant colony routing protocols were analyzed and compared.The analysis results show that every routing protocol has its own characteristics and competitive environment.No routing protocol is better than others in all aspects.Therefore,based on no free lunch theory,ant routing protocols were decomposed into three key components：route discovery,route maintenance （including route refreshing and route failure handling） and data forwarding.Moreover,component based ant routing protocol （CBAR） was proposed.For purpose of analysis,it only maintained basic ant routing process,and it was simple and efficient with a low overhead.Subsequently,different mechanisms used in every component and their effect on performance were analyzed and tested by simulations.Finally,future research strategies and trends were also summarized.

Multi-Gradient Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

Sensor networks tend to support different traffic patterns since more and more emerging applications have diverse needs. We present MGRP, a Multi-Gradient Routing Protocol for wireless sensor networks, which is fully distributed and efficiently supports endto-end, one-to-many and many-to-one traffic patterns by effectively construct and maintain a gradient vector for each node. We further combine neighbor link estimation with routing information to reduce packet exchange on network dynamics and node failures. We have implemented MGRP on Tiny OS and evaluated its performance on real-world testbeds. The result shows MGRP achieves lower end-to-end packet delay in different traffic patterns compared to the state of the art routing protocols while still remains high packet delivery ratio.

Analysis of reactive routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks in Markov models

Mobile ad hoc networks （MANETs） have become a hot issue in the area of wireless networks for their non-infrastructure and mobile features. In this paper, a MANET is modeled so that the length of each link in the network is considered as a birthdeath process and the space is reused for n times in the flooding process, which is named as an n-spatiai reuse birth-death model （n-SRBDM）. We analyze the performance of the network under the dynamic source routing protocol （DSR） which is a famous reactive routing protocol. Some performance parameters of the route discovery are studied such as the probability distribution and the expectation of the flooding distance, the probability that a route is discovered by a query packet with a hop limit, the probability that a request packet finds a τ-time-valid route or a symmetric-valid route, and the average time needed to discover a valid route. For the route maintenance, some parameters are introduced and studied such as the average frequency of route recovery and the average time of a route to be valid. We compare the two models with spatial reuse and without spatial reuse by evaluating these parameters. It is shown that the spatial reuse model is much more effective in routing.

A Partially Non-Cryptographic Security Routing Protocol in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

In this paper, we propose a partially non-cryptographic security routing protocol （PNCSR） that protects both routing and data forwarding operations through the same reactive approach. PNCSR only apply public-key cryptographic system in managing token, but it doesn＇t utilize any cryptographic primitives on the routing messages. In PNCSR, each node is fair. Local neighboring nodes collaboratively monitor each other and sustain each other. It also uses a novel credit strategy which additively increases the token lifetime each time a node renews its token. We also analyze the storage, computation, and communication overhead of PNCSR, and provide a simple yet meaningful overhead comparison. Finally, the simulation results show the effectiveness of PNCSR in various situations.

A Cyber–Physical Routing Protocol Exploiting Trajectory Dynamics for Mission-Oriented Flying Ad Hoc Networks

As a special type of mobile ad hoc network(MANET),the flying ad hoc network(FANET)has the potential to enable a variety of emerging applications in both civilian wireless communications(e.g.,5G and 6G)and the defense industry.The routing protocol plays a pivotal role in FANET.However,when designing the routing protocol for FANET,it is conventionally assumed that the aerial nodes move randomly.This is clearly inappropriate for a mission-oriented FANET(MO-FANET),in which the aerial nodes typically move toward a given destination from given departure point(s),possibly along a roughly deterministic flight path while maintaining a well-established formation,in order to carry out certain missions.In this paper,a novel cyber–physical routing protocol exploiting the particular mobility pattern of an MO-FANET is proposed based on cross-disciplinary integration,which makes full use of the missiondetermined trajectory dynamics to construct the time sequence of rejoining and separating,as well as the adjacency matrix for each node,as prior information.Compared with the existing representative routing protocols used in FANETs,our protocol achieves a higher packet-delivery ratio(PDR)at the cost of even lower overhead and lower average end-to-end latency,while maintaining a reasonably moderate and stable network jitter,as demonstrated by extensive ns-3-based simulations assuming realistic configurations in an MO-FANET.

A ROUTING PROTOCOL BASED ON INTERFERENCE-AWARE AND CHANNEL-LOAD IN MULTI-RADIO MULTI-CHANNEL AD HOC NETWORKS

Improving capacity and reducing delay are the most challenging topics in wireless ad hoc networks. Nodes that equip multiple radios working on different channels simultaneously permit ef-fective utility of frequency spectrum and can also reduce interference. In this paper, after analyzing several current protocols in Multi-Radio Multi-Channel (MR-MC) ad hoc networks, a new multi-channel routing metric called Integrative Route Metric (IRM) is designed. It takes channel load, inter-flow, and intra-flow interference into consideration. In addition, an MR-MC routing protocol based on Interference-Aware and Channel-Load (MR-IACL) is also presented. The MR-IACL can assign channels and routings for nodes according to channel load and interference degree of links, and optimize channel distribution dynamically to satisfy the features of topology changing and traffic frequent fluctuation during network running. The simulation results show that the new protocol outperforms others in terms of network throughput, end-to-end delay, routing overhead, and network lifetime.

DECLARATIVE HYBRID ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN AD HOC NETWORKS

This paper presents adaptive hybrid protocols based on the declarative network and mainly discusses the principle and realization of the Bayesian-estimation based adaptive hybrid protocol in the declarative network, which is well adapted to the Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET). The adaptive hybrid protocol is designed for ad hoc networks which have characteristics like self-organizing, no trusted party, flexibility, etc. The nodes that run the hybrid protocol can automatically select one routing protocol that is suitable for different network environment. The Bayesian-estimation based adaptive strategy, that improves the adaptability and stability of the protocol, succeeds in the Rapidnet, a declarative network engine. The result in the Rapidnet proves that the hybrid protocol and the adaptive strategy are feasible. The experiment on the ns-3 simulator, an emerging discrete-event network simulator, validates that this protocol performs well and reduces communication overheads.

A mesh based routing protocol in vehicular ad hoc networks

This paper studies a routing protocol used in the application of collecting real-time traffic information using mobile vehicles to monitor traffic status. The biggest challenge of vehicular ad hoe network routing protocol lies in the mismatch between the direction of moving vehicles and routed data. In order to deal with this mismatch, a mesh based routing protocol with a two-tier network architecture is proposed. By using mesh nodes deployed at intersections, data can be routed through an optimized path which can improve the delivery ratio and reduce the consumption of network resources. The simulation uses the mobility model processed from the GPS data of taxis mnning in Shanghai urban areas. The result shows that the proposed protocol outperforms the existing flooding protocol.

An Efcient Hop Count Routing Protocol for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

An efcient hop count route fnding approach for mobile ad hoc network is presented in this paper.It is an adaptive routing protocol that has a tradeof between transmission power and hop count for wireless ad hoc networks.During the route fnding process,the node can dynamically assign transmission power to nodes along the route.The node who has received route request message compares its power with the threshold power value,and then selects a reasonable route according to discriminating algorithms.This algorithm is an efective solution scheme to wireless ad hoc networks through reasonably selected path to reduce network consumption.Simulation results indicate that the proposed protocol can deliver better performances with respect to energy consumption and end-to-end delay.

A quality of service routing protocol based on mobility prediction in mobile ad hoc networks

A QoS routing protocol based on mobility prediction is proposed. The protocol selects the steadiest path based on mobility prediction and QoS requirements on bandwidth, delay, and so forth. The main properties of the protocol as follows. (1) Each node just broadcasts its own information, so the packet is very small and can get to the destination in a very short time. (2) When another path is built for the same QoS requirements, the original path has higher priority. (3) The update messages are reduced by using mobility prediction. (4) Data packets carry the information of link change using piggyback, which is helpful for forecasting the link status more accurately. (5) When source node gets Resource Reserve and reconnect packets at the same time, it selects reconnect packet over Resource Reserve packet. The results of simulation show that the protocol has good network performance with low control overload, and efficiently supports transmitting multimedia with QoS requirements in mobile ad hoc networks.

Anonymous multipath routing protocol based on secret sharing in mobile ad hoc networks

Because the intrinsic characteristics of mobile ad hoc networks（MANETs） cause several vulnerabilities,anonymous routing protocols attract much more attention in secure mobile ad hoc networks for the purposes of security and privacy concerns.Until recently,lots of anonymous routing protocols have been proposed.However,most of them are single path or use one path at a time,and the multipath schemes can not thwart both the passive attacks and active attacks simultaneously.Thus an anonymous multipath routing protocol based on secret sharing is proposed.The protocol provides identity anonymity,location anonymity,data and traffic anonymity by employing cryptograph technology and secret sharing in MANET communication process.Meanwhile,a hash function is introduced to detect active attacks in the data transmission process.The protocol can effectively thwart various passive attacks and reduce the successful probability of active attacks（such as interception and physical destroy attacks）.Simulation results show that the proposed scheme provides a reasonably good level of network security and performance.

Adaptive 3D Routing Protocol for Flying Ad Hoc Networks Based on Prediction-Driven Q-Learning

The routing protocols are paramount to guarantee the Quality of Service(QoS)for Flying Ad Hoc Networks(FANETs).However,they still face several challenges owing to high mobility and dynamic topology.This paper mainly focuses on the adaptive routing protocol and proposes a Three Dimensional Q-Learning(3DQ)based routing protocol to guarantee the packet delivery ratio and improve the QoS.In 3DQ routing,we propose a Q-Learning based routing decision scheme,which contains a link-state prediction module and routing decision module.The link-state prediction module allows each Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV)to predict the link-state of Neighboring UAVs(NUs),considering their Three Dimensional mobility and packet arrival.Then,UAV can produce routing decisions with the help of the routing decision module considering the link-state.We evaluate the various performance of 3DQ routing,and simulation results demonstrate that 3DQ can improve packet delivery ratio,goodput and delay of baseline protocol at most 71.36%,89.32%and 83.54%in FANETs over a variety of communication scenarios.