This paper is a study of the origin of the Chinese character for river he河. The geographical (distribution) of the names of rivers in China reflects certain patterns. River is called he 河in the northern (areas), and...This paper is a study of the origin of the Chinese character for river he河. The geographical (distribution) of the names of rivers in China reflects certain patterns. River is called he 河in the northern (areas), and jiang江in the southern parts of China. How do we explain this phenomenon? Both Norman-Mei(1976)and Hashimoto (1978)claim that both jiang 江and he 河are loanwords,which are borrowed from (Austroasiatic) Language and Mongolian,respectively. They argue that he河 in Chinese is borrowed from (Mongolian). This hypothesis is mainly based on the connection between the phonetic form gal of 河 in archaic Chinese and rool in Mongolian. It also depends upon the observation that the distribution of he河 bears (regional) features. I will argue against these leading hypotheses as well as some other speculations on the origins of these words, including those which attempt to show that they originated from Thai or Tibetan. Based on (linguistic) data, ethnological evidence,geographical distribution and historical documents, through the proofs that the etymological evidence from Chinese, the counterevidence from Mongolian, the earliest Chinese (classical) documents (Shi san jing十三经, Guo yu国语, Zhuang zi庄子, Chuci楚辞, Zhanguo ce战国策, etc.) and the fact that according to the records of historical geography, the spreading of he河 in (geographical) distribution is from the Yellow River, where its center lies, to the south and the north (respectively,) I will prove that he 河is in fact Chinese indigenous word. Its etyma is not Mongolian. In my analysis, I will also propose and elaborate on the opposite view that the respective form of he 河in the other languages is most likely loanwords from Chinese.One of the other topics of this paper is to discuss the (principles) used to distinguish Chinese etyma from loanwords: the naming processes of the etyma in a language share certain common ground and take place under an integral cognate system; the word loaning processes do not possess these properties.展开更多
意识科学通过关注体验的行为相关物和神经相关物(Behavioural and Neuronal Correlates of Experience)已经取得了长足进步。就取得的这些进步而言,尽管这些相关物(即行为相关物和神经相关物的简称)是重要的,但如果我们要理解哪怕最基...意识科学通过关注体验的行为相关物和神经相关物(Behavioural and Neuronal Correlates of Experience)已经取得了长足进步。就取得的这些进步而言,尽管这些相关物(即行为相关物和神经相关物的简称)是重要的,但如果我们要理解哪怕最基本的事实(例如,尽管小脑具有更多的神经元,而且几乎表现得与大脑皮层一样复杂,却为什么大脑皮层产生了意识,而小脑没有),那么它们还不够。此外,在许多情况下,如我们想要知道意识是否存在时,相关物几乎没有任何帮助。例如,对那些只残存几块功能皮层区的患者、早产儿、非哺乳类物种以及在驾驶、人脸识别和回答难题方面正迅速超越人类的机器而言。要解决这些问题,我们不仅需要更多的数据也需要一个意识理论——一个表明体验是什么以及哪类物理系统可能拥有体验的理论。整合信息理论(Integrated Information Theory,IIT)就是这样的理论,它以体验本身为起点,包含五个现象学公理:内在存在、构成、信息、整合和排他。IIT从上述五个公理导出五个公设,这些公设与支撑意识的物理机制所需的属性相关。IIT对个人体验(感受质)的量与质都提出了原则解释,并提供了一种计算方法来评估一个特定的物理系统是否有意识以及意识到了什么。此外,IIT可以解释一系列临床发现和实验室研究,做出一些可检验的预测,并推断出一些尚有问题的情况。这个理论认为,意识是具有特定因果属性的物理系统所拥有的一种基本属性。它预测意识是有等级的,是在生物有机体中普遍存在的,以及能出现在一些非常简单的系统中。反过来,它也预测前馈网络——即便是复杂的前馈网络——是无意识的,并且像个体组成的群体或一堆沙子这样的聚集物也没有意识。IIT与通常的功能主义信念形成鲜明对比,因为IIT表明:即使数字计算机的行为在功能上与我们的一样,即使它们如实地模拟人脑的运行,但它们仍然缺乏体验。展开更多
文摘This paper is a study of the origin of the Chinese character for river he河. The geographical (distribution) of the names of rivers in China reflects certain patterns. River is called he 河in the northern (areas), and jiang江in the southern parts of China. How do we explain this phenomenon? Both Norman-Mei(1976)and Hashimoto (1978)claim that both jiang 江and he 河are loanwords,which are borrowed from (Austroasiatic) Language and Mongolian,respectively. They argue that he河 in Chinese is borrowed from (Mongolian). This hypothesis is mainly based on the connection between the phonetic form gal of 河 in archaic Chinese and rool in Mongolian. It also depends upon the observation that the distribution of he河 bears (regional) features. I will argue against these leading hypotheses as well as some other speculations on the origins of these words, including those which attempt to show that they originated from Thai or Tibetan. Based on (linguistic) data, ethnological evidence,geographical distribution and historical documents, through the proofs that the etymological evidence from Chinese, the counterevidence from Mongolian, the earliest Chinese (classical) documents (Shi san jing十三经, Guo yu国语, Zhuang zi庄子, Chuci楚辞, Zhanguo ce战国策, etc.) and the fact that according to the records of historical geography, the spreading of he河 in (geographical) distribution is from the Yellow River, where its center lies, to the south and the north (respectively,) I will prove that he 河is in fact Chinese indigenous word. Its etyma is not Mongolian. In my analysis, I will also propose and elaborate on the opposite view that the respective form of he 河in the other languages is most likely loanwords from Chinese.One of the other topics of this paper is to discuss the (principles) used to distinguish Chinese etyma from loanwords: the naming processes of the etyma in a language share certain common ground and take place under an integral cognate system; the word loaning processes do not possess these properties.
文摘意识科学通过关注体验的行为相关物和神经相关物(Behavioural and Neuronal Correlates of Experience)已经取得了长足进步。就取得的这些进步而言,尽管这些相关物(即行为相关物和神经相关物的简称)是重要的,但如果我们要理解哪怕最基本的事实(例如,尽管小脑具有更多的神经元,而且几乎表现得与大脑皮层一样复杂,却为什么大脑皮层产生了意识,而小脑没有),那么它们还不够。此外,在许多情况下,如我们想要知道意识是否存在时,相关物几乎没有任何帮助。例如,对那些只残存几块功能皮层区的患者、早产儿、非哺乳类物种以及在驾驶、人脸识别和回答难题方面正迅速超越人类的机器而言。要解决这些问题,我们不仅需要更多的数据也需要一个意识理论——一个表明体验是什么以及哪类物理系统可能拥有体验的理论。整合信息理论(Integrated Information Theory,IIT)就是这样的理论,它以体验本身为起点,包含五个现象学公理:内在存在、构成、信息、整合和排他。IIT从上述五个公理导出五个公设,这些公设与支撑意识的物理机制所需的属性相关。IIT对个人体验(感受质)的量与质都提出了原则解释,并提供了一种计算方法来评估一个特定的物理系统是否有意识以及意识到了什么。此外,IIT可以解释一系列临床发现和实验室研究,做出一些可检验的预测,并推断出一些尚有问题的情况。这个理论认为,意识是具有特定因果属性的物理系统所拥有的一种基本属性。它预测意识是有等级的,是在生物有机体中普遍存在的,以及能出现在一些非常简单的系统中。反过来,它也预测前馈网络——即便是复杂的前馈网络——是无意识的,并且像个体组成的群体或一堆沙子这样的聚集物也没有意识。IIT与通常的功能主义信念形成鲜明对比,因为IIT表明:即使数字计算机的行为在功能上与我们的一样,即使它们如实地模拟人脑的运行,但它们仍然缺乏体验。
