Phenotypic plasticity of labile traits in the wild

Individual-based studies allow quantification ofphenotypic plasticity in behavioural, life-history and other labile traits The study of phenotypic plasticity in the wild can shed new light on the ultimate objectives （1） whether plasticity itself can evolve or is constrained by its genetic architecture, and （2） whether plasticity is associated to other traits, including fitness （selection）. I describe the main statistical approach for how repeated records of individuals and a description of the environment （E） allow quantification of variation in plasticity across individuals （IxE） and genotypes （GxE） in wild populations. Based on a literature review of life-history and behavioural studies on plasticity in the wild, I discuss the present state of the two objectives listed above. Few studies have quantified GxE of labile traits in wild populations, and it is likely that power to detect statistically sig- nificant GxE is lacking. Apart from the issue of whether it is heritable, plasticity tends to correlate with average trait expression （not fully supported by the few genetic estimates available） and may thus be evolutionary constrained in this way. Individ- ual-specific estimates of plasticity tend to be related to other traits of the individual （including fitness）, but these analyses may be anti-conservative because they predominantly concern stats-on-stats. Despite the increased interest in plasticity in wild popula- tions, the putative lack of power to detect GxE in such populations hinders achieving general insights. I discuss possible steps to invigorate the field by moving away from simply testing for presence of GxE to analyses that ＇scale up＇ to population level proce-sses and by the development of new behavioural theory to identify quantitative genetic parameters which can be estimated