Integration of Transport and Land Use Planning by Transit-Oriented Development for Economic Sustainability of the Standard Gauge Railway Projects in Tanzania

Tanzania is one of the countries in Africa that has engaged in the projects for construction of the electrified Standard Gauge Railway (SGR). However, lack of integration of transportation and land-use planning threatens economic sustainability of the SGR project. This study was carried out for the purpose of finding-out how transportation can be integrated with land-use planning for economic sustainability of the project. The study was carried-out by using qualitative research approach through demonstration as case study. Findings show that construction of the SGR is not integrated with land-use planning around the stations and along the SGR corridor. It is concluded that economic sustainability of the SGR projects can be achieved by integration of transport and land-use planning. As demonstrated, it is recommended to deliberate for integration of transportation and land-use planning in the SGR projects of which the prime land within Transit Stations can be efficiently used by using Transit Oriented Development and secure more land for production activities around the Transit Stations and along the SGR corridor.

Challenges of the Performance Standards of the International Finance Corporation in Financing the African Integrated High-Speed Railway Network and the Way Forward: The Case of Standard Gauge Railway in Tanzania

Financing of the African Integrated High-Speed Railway Network (AIHSRN) through Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) Projects is very expensive. As a result, most of the African countries seek financial supports from the International Financial Institutions (IFIs). However, conditions provided by the IFIs through the Performance Standards (PS) of the International Financial Corporation (IFC) increase cost of the projects and thus, it becomes a burden to most of the African countries. This study aimed to explore the causes of IFC-PS through the SGR Projects that escalate costs and how to address them. The Tanzania SGR Lot 1 Project that covered 205 km from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro was selected as a case study. The methods used for data collection involved literature review, focus group discussions and interviews. The results and findings show a gap between the IFC-PS and the National Laws and Regulations that escalates costs of the projects if funds from the IFIs were to be secured. To bridge the gap, it is recommended that the African countries should engage into negotiations with the IFIs to agree to waive IFC-PS conditions that escalate costs provided they are adequately covered in the national laws and regulations;engagement of locally established national and regional financial institutions;and the responsible government institutions in the African countries should sit together for assessment and review of the IFC-PS against the national laws and regulations.

Users’ Perception on Operation and Performance of Public Transport Systems in African Developing Countries: The Case of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania

Public transport system has been a means of addressing transportation challenges in urban areas, such as traffic congestion, traffic jam and long travel time in cities worldwide. Transportation in Africa is unique in that it has the least developed public transport systems in the world, while also being one of the fastest urbanizing continents. Bus Rapid Transit being one of the public transport systems was introduced in Africa in 2008 as a means to provide solution on urban transportation challenges. Despite of public transport being the main means of transport in African developing countries, there have been a number of challenges that affects efficiency of performance of the system and makes its users uncomfortable. Therefore, the study aimed at exploring the setbacks or challenges associated with operation and performance of the BRT system in the African developing countries and address them. The study employed mixed methods research design that integrates both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods and analysis. The study findings reveal that, there is an improvement on the perspectives of the commuters on public transport after introduction of BRT system. However, some challenges such as long waiting time, passengers overcrowding during peak hours, as well as safety and security can slowly change the perspective of the commuters. Therefore, to address these challenges it is recommended to reduce the long waiting time and improve accessibility by introduction of passenger information displays (bus information system) and automated fare collection system;reduce travel time by introduction of bus priority signal;and improve safety and security by introduction of signage and CCTV Camera within the bus and bus stops.

Analysis of Climate Variability, Perceptions and Coping Strategies of Tanzanian Coastal Forest Dependent Communities

Climate variability and change are among the biggest challenges of the 21st century. Like in many other areas globally, the coastal communities of Tanzania have always been facing climatic variability at various time scales. Using focus group discussion and a household survey, this study analyzes the perceptions of climate variability and change and the strategies for coping and adaptation by the selected coastal rural and peri-urban communities in Tanzania. The perception of climate variability and change is complemented with the time-series analysis of rainfall and temperature data from Julius Nyerere International Airport Met. station and Kisarawe using Instant Statistical Software. Results indicate that households are aware of climate variability and identify indicators of climate change and variability as being decreasing rainfall trends, increasing incidences of droughts, unpredictable rainfall patterns, disappearance of wetlands and failure to predict on-set of rainy season using traditional knowledge. Households primarily attribute reduced crop yields to changes in rainfall pattern and increasing incidences of drought leading to soil moisture stress. The implications are that the agriculture dependent households are now food insecure. As a way of coping to the observed changes, the coastal communities among others have shifted to production of high value horticultural crops and use of forest resources. Nevertheless, the increased use of forest resources is threatening the existence of coastal forests and contributes to the decline of forest resources and disappearance of wildlife in the forest reserves. It is concluded that the communities studied are aware of climate issues as revealed from perceived indicators of climate variability and changes. The results from statistical analysis of 30 years climatic data are consistent with community’s perception of climate variability and change. The study recommends examining the present coping strategies for the sustainability of the coastal forests and in designing of alternative adaptive strategies such as alternative energy options, crop diversification and environmental friendly activities such as beekeeping.

Drought Pattern along the Coastal Forest Zone of Tanzania

This study focused on identifying drought patterns particularly during the growing seasons along the coastal zone of Tanzania in order to facilitate the determination of drought impacts on forest Ecosystem. The growing seasons were March, April and May (MAM) referred as long growing season and October, November and December (OND) which is known as short growing season. The main data were precipitation from 16 weather stations covering the coastal zones of Tanzania. Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to establish meteorological drought patterns. The duration of records was between 34 and 59 years depending on the available data on the concerned stations. The SPI time series of 3 and 12 months showed that the coastal region of Tanzania experienced frequent drought conditions ranging from mild, moderate, severe and extreme droughts during both short and long growing seasons. It was found that the coastal zone of Tanzania experienced higher drought duration, severity and intensity with frequent extreme events after 2000 than before. Despite that Kisarawe area revealed low frequency of drought events (88%) than other study areas;it exhibited greater frequency of extreme droughts (46%) over the whole study areas. Higher drought duration (40 months) and severity (sum of SPI -36) were observed for precipitation data from Unguja Islands, while data from Julius Nyerere International Airport areas displayed higher drought intensity (SPI value of -1.9). Generally, Tanzania coastal zone was never completely without drought or anomalously wet conditions at any time scale during the period of record. The coastal zone was nearly entirely in drought periods especially the last decade after 2000. This suggests that vegetation in the coastal zone might have experienced the impacts of these droughts within the period. The magnitude of the impacts will be understood by tracking changes of biomass and forest cover along the coastal zone within the last decade from 2000 to 2011 in addition to the 1990/92 which experienced drought dominance for Pemba.

Integrated Assessment of Forest Cover Change and Above-Ground Carbon Stock in Pugu and Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserves, Tanzania

A study was conducted to estimate the forest cover change, quantify and map tree above-ground carbon stock using Remote sensing and GIS techniques together with forest inventory. Landsat images of 1980, 1995 and 2010 acquired during dry season were used in the estimation of cover changes. Supervised image classification using Maximum Likeli-hood Classifier was performed in ERDAS Imagine software to analyze the images and further analysis was performed in Arc GIS 9.3 software. Stratified sampling procedure was used to select concentric inventory plots in Pugu Forest Reserve (PFR) and Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve (KFR). Plots were laid according to NAFORMA, and the tree parameters in each sampling plot were collected. A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet was used to compute the above-ground bio- mass for each plot using an empirical equation relating wood basic density and tree height. The above-ground carbon was calculated using a conversion factor of 0.49. Geostatistical method in ArcGIS was used to analyze and map carbon. Results revealed that for the periods 1980-1995 and 1995-2010, Closed Forest in PFR decreased by 4.5% and 25.3% respectively, while for KFR, Closed Forest decreased by 11.9% and 31.3% respectively. The mean carbon density for PFR and KFR were respectively 5.72 tC/ha and 0.98 tC/ha while carbon stocks were 14 730.41 tC and 7 206.46 tC re- spectively. The revealed low carbon densities were attributable to decline in area under Closed Forest in the two Forest Reserves. The study recommends concerted efforts to enhance proper management of the forests so that the two forest reserves may contribute to REDD initiatives.

REDD+ benefit sharing under models tested by pilot projects in Tanzania:Inputs towards developing national benefit-sharing mechanism models

This paper presents results of the assessment on benefit sharing and payment mechanisms tested by six non-governmental organizations(NGOs)-piloted Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation(REDD+) initiatives in Tanzania.Results from the assessment indicate that models applied by most of the REDD+ pilot projects have provided most of decisions for the distribution of benefits to the communities through village general assemblies.Based on requirements of the tested models,national benefit-sharing mechanism models are proposed.Major attributes to be considered in the development of national benefit-sharing models should include:(i) ensuring that the existing government structure is not excluded to ensure sustainability;(ii) village general assembly is involved in determining the distribution of the benefits accrued;and(iii) transparency in handling the carbon finance is ensured.Models that are proposed for the national REDD+ benefit sharing apply to two forest management systems,namely Joint Forest Management(JFM) and Community Based Forest Management(CBFM).The paper recommends testing of the two proposed models to determine whether they could be useful in sharing benefits resulting from REDD+ in Tanzania.

Relationship between Land Cover Changes with Water Quantity in Lake Victoria—A Case Study of Mara River Basin in Tanzania

LV(Lake Victoria)is valuable to the East African sub region and Africa in general,sources of water for LV are from its catchment areas and tributaries e.g.Kagera and Mara Rivers on Tanzania part.Apparently,catchment areas in proximities of LV and on MR(Mara River),indeed on MRB(Mara River Basin)in particular,are experiencing increased anthropogenic activities such as mining,fishing,settlements,agriculture etc.,which lead to increased water usage,land degradation and environmental pollution.Such activities threaten the sustainability of the environment surrounding MRB and impliedly LV and its ecosystem.The level of water in LV is reported to be declining threatening its extinction.This paper is reporting on a study undertaken to establish the relationship between land cover changes with ground water discharge from specifically MRB into LV over the period of 24 years,i.e.1986 to 2010.Methodology used is assessment of vegetation changes by using remote sensing through analysis of TM(Thematic Mapper)Landsat Images of 1986,1994,2002 and 2010 ETM(Enhanced Thematic Mapper)Landsat images,from which respective land cover change maps were generated and compared with ground water levels from MRB.Results indicates that there is a significant decline of land cover and ground water flowing into LV from MRB,and that there is positive correlation between land cover changes and the quantity of ground water flowing from MRB to LV.This phenomenon is common to all tributaries of LV,thus leading to decline of water in LV.It is recommended that relevant government institutions should endeavor formulating policies to control excessive use of wetlands and drylands in the proximity of LV and MRB in particular,such that the flow of water to LV may be sustained.

Suitability Analysis of Satellite Towns Using Saaty Model and Geographical Information System (GIS)

Dar es Salaam is one of the fastest growing cities in East Africa, with a population of 4,364,541 whose annual growth rate is 4.5%. The population increase is mainly caused by rural to urban migration causing traffic congestion, unemployment, emerging of unplanned settlements, inadequate infrastructure, and social and housing services. In order to overcome these challenges there is an urgent need to establish and determine suitable locations of satellite towns to the outskirts of the central business district (CBD) to strengthen economic and social activities using reliable techniques. Selecting suitable locations of satellite towns has been determined by using distance from the CBD and population growth indicators. The limitations of using these indicators include unsuitable locations, which ultimately failed to attract economic growth in such areas. In this study, we introduce a new approach of selecting suitable location of satellite towns in fast growing cities. This approach uses Saaty Model and Geographic Information Systems techniques, whereby a pair wise comparison matrix, consistency index and consistency ratio are employed to determine suitable locations of satellite towns in Ubungo and Kinondoni Municipalities. Also, seven criteria were used to produce suitability maps for water, power line, road, communication line, elevation, slope and land use. The results obtained from this study show that about 5.31% of the area was classified as highly suitable, 29.82% as moderately suitable, 24.27% as marginally suitable and 40.6% permanently unsuitable. Locations of satellite towns determined using Saaty model was found to be on highly suitable areas whereas locations of satellite towns proposed by the Dar es Salaam master plan were located on marginally suitable areas. The study concludes that Saaty Model, if integrated with GIS, can be effectively used to determine suitable locations for satellite towns in urban areas.

Repercussions of Improved Municipal Solid Waste Management on Flood Risk Reduction: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Indisputably, flooding is one of the predicaments that have plagued many countries throughout the world. Consequently, Improvement of Municipal Solid Waste Management-(MSWM) has recently become one of the ways that is believed to help in reducing the impact of flooding. Following the fact that Dar es Salaam, the commercial capital, has nearly 5 million inhabitants and several of the wards are in flood-prone areas, the City authorities introduced new models of MSWM by incorporating public-private partnership as a deliberate action envisioned to improve MSWM. Nevertheless, the extent to which the strategy is effective in minimizing flood risks had not been adequately researched, which prompted a need to conduct a study. Specifically, the study sought to: assess the current practice of SWM in the settlement;examine the extent to which flood risk had been reduced given the application of the new models of SWM. This is primarily a case study which used Keko Machungwa in Dar es Salaam as the study area. Different forms of data collections tools were used for instance interviews of households and officials, photographs, spatial data etc. The findings indicated that Jukwaa la Wanawake in Keko Machungwa, a newly emerged community-driven organization was doing a fairly good job in handling SWM. This social entity was capable of collecting 40 tons of solid wastes per week and arranged for transportation. Overall, there was a marked decrease in haphazard dumping within the settlement. Despite the improvement, however, flooding was still persistent and was an alarming challenge. To that effect, this study recommends that improving solid waste collection could help overcome the problem of flooding particularly if integrated with other initiatives which include 1) Investment in robust flood control structures;2) Adherence to Urban planning and disaster management policies which prohibit development in hazardous areas, an instance of which being demolishing the existing building structures located in the water way in Keko Machungwa and;3) Initiate large scale flood risk reduction settlement schemes.

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Housing Development in Keko Machungwa

In Tanzania 80% of the population live in informal settlements. Most of these settlements are built in areas that are susceptible to extreme weather conditions such as flooding. Such conditions have significantly contributed to the destruction of housing stock and other valuable properties. There is considerable awareness amongst people living in the informal settlements, government representatives and other key stakeholders about the various flood risks affecting informal settlements. Based on this understanding, several attempts to minimize flood risks have been initiated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, yet these initiatives have largely failed to deliver the desired impacts. This article aims to investigate core reasons for this through a case study of Keko Machungwa Informal settlement in Dar es Salaam City. The study explores the extent to which mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction (DRR) in housing development in informal settlements has been considered and implemented, and recommends measures for improvement. Key methods employed for the research included physical observation, household interviews, mapping, photographing, and in-depth interviews. Overall, the study found that mainstreaming of DRR in housing development was hardly practiced at the household level, as houses were predominantly being built without resistant building materials and supervision of relevant professionals. In order to mainstream DRR in housing development in informal settlements, it is recommended that mainstreaming DRR be embedded in laws and policies, highly vulnerable parts of the settlement be declared protected wetland and that the government direct its efforts towards regulating, controlling and monitoring the housing development sector. That letter can be achieved by emphasizing the use of flood resistant building materials and establishing resilient infrastructures for flood mitigation in every flood prone informal settlement.

Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness of Historic Buildings: The Heritage Stone Town of Zanzibar

Owing to health and security hazards posed by concentration of EMR (electromagnetic radiations) from wireless transmission devices such as antennas and WiFi, it is time for building specialists to consider EMR shielding in general designs. Such a venture needs understanding of shielding behavior of various building materials in their isolated and combined forms. While shielding properties of several industrial materials are known, much remains to be understood from traditional materials. This article contributes to the knowledge of SE (shielding effectiveness) of the latter materials. It has tested the buildings of the 19th CE STZ (Stone Town of Zanzibar). The coral stones, mud, and mangrove pole buildings of this historic town were found to be effective in shielding the radiations, nearly the same as renowned buildings of the Roman Empire.

Government and Community Involvement in Environmental Protection and Flood Risk Management: Lessons from Keko Machungwa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Since the 1960s, most cities in developing countries have faced a high rate of urbanization, which in turn has caused more harm to low-income earners, in urban areas. A majority of low-income earners most often face difficulties in accessing land in planned areas, as a result they are forced to build houses in unplanned settlements that are vulnerable to natural hazards. The situation is worse to the extent that people encroach the most vulnerable areas (hazard lands). As concentration of people increases, these unplanned areas become more unsafe to live in. This is partly due to the risks associated with natural hazards particularly flooding. Further, vulnerability of unplanned settlements in developing countries is aggravated by hosts of problems caused by many factors, including inadequate Government involvement in: environmental protection especially managing hazard lands and helping the community to minimize risks associated with hazards. This paper addresses this issue. It argues that community and Government initiatives are vital to any strategy for flood risk reduction and environmental protection in general. The study employed both the primary and the secondary data sources. Data collection tools and techniques involved in this study included: Checklist to various leaders, interview using questionnaires, focus group discussion, analysis of aerial photographs and non participant observation. A total of 70 households from within Keko Machungwa were interviewed. The study revealed that flooding is largely contributed by construction done by a large scale developer on a water course;and when affected community initiated a strategy to solve the problem they partially succeed due to inadequate support from the Government and other stakeholders. These findings could be useful to strengthen policy and legislation in environmental protection, management and flood control as well as in intervening land use conflicts between local community and developers.

Assessment of Supervised Classifiers for Land Cover Categorization Based on Integration of ALOS PALSAR and Landsat Data

Many supervised classification algorithms have been proposed, however, they are rarely evaluated for specific application. This research examines the performance of machine learning classifiers support vector machine (SVM), neural network (NN), Random Forest (RF) against maximum classifier (MLC) (traditional supervised classifier) in forest resources and land cover categorization, based on combination of Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data, in Northern Tanzania. Various data categories based on Landsat TM surface reflectance, ALOS PALSAR backscattering and their derivatives were generated for various classification scenarios. Then a separate and joint processing of Landsat and ALOS PALSAR data were executed using SVM, NN, RF and ML classifiers. The overall classification accuracy (OA), kappa coefficient (KC) and F1 score index values were computed. The result proves the robustness of SVM and RF in classification of forest resource and land cover using mere Landsat data and integration of Landsat and PALSAR (average OA = 92% and F1 = 0.7 to 1). A two sample t-statistics was utilized to evaluate the performance of the classifiers using different data categories. SVM and RF indicate there is no significance difference at 5% significance level. SVM and RF show a significant difference when compared to NN and ML. Generally, the study suggests that parametric classifiers indicate better performance compared to parametric classifier.