“In Space” or “As Space”?: Spatial Autocorrelation Properties of the Earth’s Interior

In this analysis, natural systems are posed to subsystemize in a manner facilitating both structured information/energy sharing and an entropy maximization process projecting a three-dimensional, spatial outcome. Numerical simulations were first carried out to determine whether n × n input-output matrices could, once entropy-maximized, project a three-dimensional Euclidean metric. Only 4 × 4 matrices could;a small proportion passed the test. Larger proportions passed when grouped random patterns on and within two- and three-dimensional forms were tested. The pattern of structural zonation within the earth was then tested in analogous fashion using spatial autocorrelation measures, and for three time periods: current, 95 million years b.p. and 200 million years b.p. All expected results were obtained;not only do the geometries of zonation project a three-dimensional structure as anticipated, but also do secondary statistical measures reveal levels of equilibrium among the zones in all three cases that are nearly total, distinguishing them from simulations that do not incorporate a varying-surface zone-width element.

The Impact of Animal Trampling on Free-living Nematode Abundance,Genera,and Trophic Diversity was Attenuated by Tree Canopies

Livestock grazing and trampling is an important factor in the formation and development of different terrestrial ecosystems.However,despite numerous studies on soil compaction,there is still no consensus as to which kind of effect(positive or negative)animal trampling exerts on soil nematodes.The main goal of this study was to evaluate the animal trampling effect on free-living nematode abundance and diversity,and to define the attenuating effect of the tree canopies(Cupressus sempervirens,Eucalyptus camaldulensis,and Tamarix aphylla)during wet and dry periods.The nematodes were extracted from 100 g aliquots of soil samples(brown-red sandy soils)during cold-wet(CW),warm-wet(WW),and hot-dry(HD)periods during 2013-2014,in a man-made safari-zoo habitat,using the Baermann funnel procedure.Our results revealed the impact of trampling on both free-living nematode abundance and diversity,and their soil habitat.It was found that trampling,along with seasonal fluctuation and the tree-species attenuating effect on the soil medium,resulted in the creation of the spatial-temporal heterogeneity of soil properties in the study area.In turn,variation in soil properties was reflected in soil nematode abundance and diversity,revealing tight correlation with the observed soil properties.Animal trampling had an overwhelming,mostly negative impact on soil nematode abundance,genera,and trophic diversity in the open,bare area.However,the protective effect of the tree canopies,as well as seasonal fluctuations,attenuated this negative impact.The trees had a significant attenuating effect on trampling compared with the open,bare area.However,different tree species during the wet and dry periods had a variable impact on nematode abundance,genera,and trophic diversity.During the hottest period of the year,when external adverse factors dominated the trampling effect,the ability of the trees to protect nematode communities was significantly reduced.Of all the colonizer-persister(cp)continuum of nematode functional guilds,only bacteria-feeding nematodes belonging to the cp-1 guild were positively affected by trampling.In general,nematodes belonging to the r-life-strategy group(colonizers tolerant to environmental disturbance),mainly bacteria-feeding nematodes,were the most numerous(61 and 44%at the trampling and undisturbed sites,respectively).In contrast to the bacteria-feeding group,fungi-feeding nematodes were the smallest group in the study area(8 and 4%in the trampling and undisturbed sites,respectively).The undisturbed sites were a more favorable habitat for the plant-parasite nematodes(9 and 26%in the trampling and undisturbed sites,respectively).Surprisingly,the omnivore-predator nematodes belonging to the K-life strategy group and that are characterized by hypersensitivity to disturbance,were relatively numerous at the trampling(22%)and relatively undisturbed(26%)sites.The results showed that 62%of the nematode species were affected(48%negatively and 14%positively)by either direct trampling or changes in soil properties.The ecological indices confirmed that animal trampling had a negative impact on the soil biota in the study area.Our results suggested that animal trampling exerts significant a direct and indirect effects(through changes in soil properties)on soil free-living nematodes.Moreover,the wet-dry seasonal periods along with the tree canopies protective effect may significantly change the extent of animal trampling impact.

Intraspecific scaling and early life history determine the cost of free-flight in a large beetle(Batocera rufomaculata)

The scaling of the energetic cost of locomotion with body mass is well documented at the interspecific level.However,methodological restrictions limit our understanding of the scaling of flight metabolic rate(MR)in free-flying insects.This is particularly true at the intraspecific level,where variation in body mass and flight energetics may have direct consequences for the fitness of an individual.We applied a 13C stable isotope method to investigate the scaling of MR with body mass during free-flight in the beetle Batocera rufomaculata.This species exhibits large intraspecific variation in adult body mass as a consequence of the environmental conditions during larval growth.We show that the flight-MR scales with body mass to the power of 0.57,with smaller conspecifics possessing up to 2.3 fold higher mass-specific flight MR than larger ones.Whereas the scaling exponent of free-flight MR was found to be like that determined for tethered-flight,the energy expenditure during free-flight was more than 2.7 fold higher than for tethered-flight.The metabolic cost of flight should therefore be studied under free-flight conditions,a requirement now enabled by the 13C technique described herein for insect flight.

Metabolic cost of flight and aerobic efficiency in the rose chafer,Protaetia cuprea(Cetoniinae)

Rose chafer beetles(Protetia cuprea)are pollinators as well as agricultural pests,flying between flowers and trees while foraging for pollen and fruits.Calculating the energy they expend on flying during foraging activity faces the challenge of measuring the metabolic rate(MR)of free-flying insects in an open space.We overcame this challenge by using the bolus injection of ^(13)C Na-bicarbonate technique to measure their metabolic energy expenditure while flying in a large flight arena.Concurrently,we tracked the insects with high-speed cameras to extract their flight trajectory,from which we calculated the mechanical power invested in flying for each flight bout.We found that the chemical(metabolic)energy input converted to mechanical flight energy output at a mean efficiency of 10.4%±5.2%,with a trend of increased efficiency in larger conspecifics(efficiency scaled with body mass to the power of 1.4).The transition in the summer from a diet of pollen to that of fruits may affect the energy budget available for foraging.Starved P.cuprea,feeding on apples ad libitum,increased their body mass by an average of 6%in 2 h.According to our calculations,such a meal can power a 630-m flight(assuming a carbohydrate assimilation efficiency of 90%).Pollen,with a low water and carbohydrate content but rich in proteins and lipids,has a higher caloric content and should assimilate differently when converting food to flight fuel.The high cost of aerial locomotion is inherent to the foraging behavior of rose chafers,explaining their short flight bouts followed by prolonged feeding activity.

A new species of Celidodacus Hendel, with notes on C. coloniarum(Speiser) and C. obnubilus(Karsch)

A new species of Celidodacus Hendel, C. parafenestratus Chen & Freidberg, sp. nov. from Democratic Republic of Congo, is described and illustrated. Redescriptions and illustrations of C. coloniarum and C. obnubilus are provided, of which C. coloniarum is first recorded from Kenya. A key to all species of the genus is revised.