Mapping and Floristic Diversity of the Nakpadjouak Community Forest, Tami Canton, Togo (West Africa)

Since 2015, community forests have been promoted in Togo as an alternative to protect areas from degradation and as a means of contributing to forest landscape restoration. The study focuses on the Nakpadjouak Community Forest (NCF) in Tami (Togo, West Africa) which contributes to community forests sustainable management. It aims in (i) mapping forest ecosystems and analysing their dynamic and (ii) characterizing the floristic diversity of the NCF. The ecosystems were mapped and their dynamic was evaluated based on Google Earth images of 2014 and 2020. Floristic and forestry inventories were carried out using the transect technique in a sample of 20 plots of 50 m × 20 m. The NCF was made up mainly by wooded/shrub savannahs (95.37%) and croplands/fallow (4.63%) in 2014. These two land use types undergone changes over the 6 years prior to 2020. By 2020, the NCF had 3 land use types: wooded/shrub savannahs (77.59%), open forest/wooded savannahs (22.23%), and croplands/fallows (0.18%). A total of 89 plant species belonging to 70 genera and 28 families were recorded within the NCF. The dominant species are: Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. and Combretum collinum Fresen. followed by Pteleopsissuberosa Engl. & Diels, Annona senegalensis Pers. The most common species are: Lannea acida A.Rich. s.l., A. senegalensis, Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertner subsp. paradoxa, C. collinum and Acacia dudgeonii Craib ex Holland. Due to its small area of just 40 hectares and its diverse plant life, this community forest of Savannahs Region is a significant biodiversity hotspot and warrants conservation efforts.

Anthropogenic Threats to Degraded Forest Land in the Savannahs’ Region of Togo from 1984 to 2020, West Africa

This study focuses on the landscape dynamics of the savannahs’ region in the far north of Togo. Based on a literature review and satellite images analysis using GIS and remote sensing, the study aims to ascertain the effects of anthropogenic threats on the forest coverage of the Savannahs’ Region between 1984 to 2020. The objective is to clarify the dynamics of land use in the region from 1984 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2020. The findings indicate a significant decline in forest coverage within the region from 1984 to 2020, a trend attributed to land use patterns. Dry forests in the Savannah region are largely converted to farmlands, housing, dry savannahs or agroforestry parks, leading to a steady reduction in forest areas.

Forested Farmlands:Forest Management by Agroforestry Symbiosis in A Land Management Framework in South and South East Asia

Forests provide multiple benefits as a safety net to the poor and also help to increase the overall ecological balance.Of particular importance in this respect this research has been conducted in six typical villages in South and Southeast Asia,located in Northern Bangladesh,Southern Myanmar and Northwest Thailand.Data collection methods were used by means of observation,FGD,interviews,and a structured survey of farm households.Data were analyzed through qualitative methods

GIS-based assessment of land-agroforestry potentiality of Jharkhand State, India

Scaling-up agroforestry area in various forms is a scientific path towards achieving various sustainable development goals(SDGs),especially improving livelihood,reducing poverty,conserving environment and biodiversity,and transforming climate change.In this study,the effort was made to investigate the land potentiality for agroforestry at the district level in Jharkhand State,India by applying geographic information system(GIS)modeling technology using climate(temperature and precipitation),topography(slope and elevation),ecology(percent tree cover and normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)),and social economics(poverty rate and tribal dominance)factors.The results revealed that six districts of Jharkhand State had agroforestry potential greater than 60.00%.The highest agroforestry suitability was found in Simdega District(78.20%),followed by Pakur(76.25%),West Singhbhum(72.70%),Dumka(68.84%),Sahibganj(64.63%),and Godda(63.43%)districts.Additionally,we identified 513 out of 32,620 villages of Jharkhand State potentially suitable(agroforestry suitability≥80.00%)for agroforestry with the objective of life improvement among marginalized society.Under the outside forest area,8.58%of the total geographical land of Jharkhand State was wasteland,much of which was found suitable for agroforestry practices.The agroforestry setups in those wastelands can absorb 637 t carbon annually in long run and can provide direct economic benefits to the locals besides additional income for carbon emission reduction.This study concluded that Jharkhand State has plenty of high potential land for agroforestry,and adoption of agroforestry at the village level must be given high priority.This study could guide the nodal authorities to prepare appropriate strategies for scaling the tree cover in agroforestry systems in village-level landscape planning which needs policy attention and investment for achieving 9 out of the 17 SDGs.

Participatory Action Research for Catalyzing Adaptive Management： Analysis of a ＂Fits and Starts＂ Process

This paper argues that contextual constraints can significantly interfere with the conduct of research and development, and accordingly should be analyzed more honestly. It describes a five country research project, Landscape Mosaics, in which participatory action research （PAR） was intended as one of two central approaches in the original research design （the other approach being more conventional research）. The five sites, in Cameroon, Indonesia, Laos, Madagascar, and Tanzania, are described, with an emphasis on their implementation of PAR. The fact that personnel and partners on three of the five sites failed to implement PAR is analyzed, to determine the constraints to such action. These findings are then compared with our experience with two other similar projects in which PAR was more widely implemented. We conclude by identifying the most important constraints to be overcome in implementing a PAR process, something we consider important in efforts to deal with change processes in developing countries.

Consistency of Agricultural, Forestry and Mining Policies with Sustainable Forest Management in the East and South Regions of Cameroon

The eastern and southern regions of Cameroon, lower middle income country, need to increase their level of land use by the agricultural, forestry and mining sectors in order to develop. At the same time, Cameroon is committed to managing its forests sustainably to meet the needs of present and future generations. This study assesses the compatibility of agricultural, forestry and mining policies with sustainable forest management in the East and South forest regions. Five analytical criteria were used and the analysis was carried out through surveys of key informants in the private sector, public administrations and civil society. The study showed that from 2013 to 2018, the contributions of the agricultural, forestry and mining sectors to GDP grew by about 74%, 65% and 60%, respectively. Agricultural, forestry and mining policies have an average compatibility rate of 45% with sustainable forest management, of which 52% for the forestry sector, 43% for the agricultural sector and 40% for the mining sector. Nonetheless, there are 21 causes of incompatibility, including 1) the non-involvement of all relevant public administrations in policy-making, 2) the low efficiency of the control system of exploitation activities, and 3) the poor coordination of actions in the three sectors. It was proposed to a) improve the legal and regulatory framework of the three sectors of activity and b) develop land-use planning tools among other measures to align existing policies with sustainable forest management.

Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants Confirmed by the Baka in Southern and Eastern Cameroon

The limitations of biomedecine to provide effective solutions to certain pandemics has led many people to turn to alternative therapies. These palliative solutions, particularly phytomedecines, are much sought after for disease prevention and treatment. The Baka, a group of forest-dwelling people, hold knowledge on how wild plants can be effective in treating many illnesses. However, the greatest challenge for the identification of traditional medicines depends on the veracity of the information provided during ethnobotanic surveys by user populations. The present study describes forest plants used by the Baka and confirmed by them as being employed for traditional medicine. We carried out ethnobotanical surveys between 2019 and 2021 in 221 households within four districts of the Eastern and Southern Region of Cameroon. We used indices of significant use and performance applied to all mentioned species, alongside searches in the literature. The statistical tools used to distinguish the different groups/districts is Pearson’s X2 test. A total of 378 plant species were identified of 270 genera and 85 families. Ethnobotanical indices allowed to identify the most confirmed and efficient plants for several health problems. A pairwise comparison of these indices showed a significant correlation with a p-value < 2.2e-16 and a dissimilarity distance less than 0.5. Some plants selected are widely cited in other regions and/or countries for the same health problems. The presence of active molecules responsible for their biological activity was also proven, justifying their use in traditional medicine. This paper examines the potential to enhance the value of Cameroon’s pharmacopeia by integrating various ethnobotanical indices. It aims to discover new therapeutic molecules and develop improved traditional products from the diverse plant species documented. The findings indicate opportunities to advance both local and global healthcare solutions.

Extent and Consequences of Tropical Forest Degradation： Successive Policy Options for Bangladesh

This paper is conceived at a time when new paradigms are sought for the development of a framework to deal with the problem of forest resources degradation. Deforestation in Bangladesh, has reached an alarming rate in recent years. The forest coverage of Bangladesh is one of the lowest and the deforestation rate is the highest of any country in the world. Coupled with the process of deforestation, flawed afforestration programmes have seriously exposed Bangladesh to environmental vulnerability. Considering this situation various strategies should be taken at different levels. The main objective of this paper is to suggest the possible steps that Bangladesh could halt and reverse the trend of deforestation. An extensive literature review and structured interviews of key informants have been used to collect relevant information to understand the reasons and consequences of forest degradation in the country. Based on the information gathered, this paper suggests some positive steps where the Government could be the main mitigating actor by implementing integrated programmes, which will also ensure mass awareness and wider impact.

Tropical forest canopies and their relationships with climate and disturbance： results from a global dataset of consistent field-based measurements

Background： Canopy structure, defined by leaf area index （LAI）, fractional vegetation cover （FCover） and fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation （fAPAR）, regulates a wide range of forest functions and ecosystem services. Spatially consistent field-measurements of canopy structure are however lacking, particularly for the tropics. Methods： Here, we introduce the Global LAI database： a global dataset of field-based canopy structure measurements spanning tropical forests in four continents （Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas）. We use these measurements to test for climate dependencies within and across continents, and to test for the potential of anthropogenic disturbance and forest protection to modulate those dependences. Results： Using data collected from 887 tropical forest plots, we show that maximum water deficit, defined across the most arid months of the year, is an important predictor of canopy structure, with all three canopy attributes declining significantly with increasing water deficit. Canopy attributes also increase with minimum temperature, and with the protection of forests according to both active （within protected areas） and passive measures （through topography）. Once protection and continent effects are accounted for, other anthropogenic measures （e.g. human population） do not improve the model. Conclusions： We conclude that canopy structure in the tropics is primarily a consequence of forest adaptation to the maximum water deficits historically experienced within a given region. Climate change, and in particular changes in drought regimes may thus affect forest structure and function, but forest protection may offer some resilience against this effect.

Genecological zones and selection criteria for natural forest populations for conservation:the case of Boswellia papyrifera in Ethiopia

Rapid changes in land-use in the Combretum–Terminalia woodlands of northwestern Ethiopia are mainly due to the increases in commercial farming and immigration.We used integrated ecological and social data collection techniques,including subdivision of the vegetation zone,vegetation survey,focus group discussions and key informant interviews,to identify genecological zones and set criteria for selection of viable populations of Boswellia papyrifera(Del.)Hochst in Ethiopia for conservation.Interviews of senior experts were supported with a rating method and involved 43 respondents and focused on identifying and weighting criteria and indicators of selection in a participatory way to prioritize populations for conservation.Using mean annual rainfall data,we reclassified the Combretum–Terminalia woodland vegetation region into three moisture zones(wet,moist and dry),and designated them as genecological zones for B.papyrifera conservation.A total of 35 woody species were identified at Lemlem Terara site in Metema district,and the Shannon diversity index and evenness were 2.01 and of 0.62,respectively.There were 405 adult trees,and 10 saplings and3314 seedlings per ha.The trees were medium-sized with overall mean diameter at breast height(dbh) of 16.9(±9.5)cm.Seedling recruitment was poor due to grazing,crop production and fire incidences.Through a multi-criteria decision analysis,five criteria and 20 quantitative indicators were identified and weighted to prioritize populations for conservation.These criteria in their descending order of importance are(1) forest ecosystem health and vitality,(2)forest cover and population structure of B.papyrifera,(3)productive function of the forest,(4) biological diversity in the forest,and(5) socioeconomic benefits of the forest to communities.Multivariate tests in the general linear model revealed significant differences among researchers and nonresearchers in rating the criteria and indicators,but not among foresters and nonforesters.Hence,participatory multi-criteria decision analysis should involve people from various institutions to rectify decisions on conservation of the species.Careful evaluation of the investment policy environment and engaging those government bodies that are responsible to allocate the dry forests for commercial farming is recommended before the proposed criteria are applied to select populations for conservation,thus ensuring subsequent use of the outcomes of such exercises and better reconciling conservation and agricultural production increment goals.

Contribution of Dry Forest Products to Household Income and Determinants of Forest Income Levels in the Northwestern and Southern Lowlands of Ethiopia

Dry forests are dominant vegetation types in East Africa. The contribution of these resources to local livelihoods is poorly understood. This study was conducted to quantify the contribution of dry forest products to household income and to identify factors that influence forest income level in the northwestern and southern lowlands of Ethiopia. Data was collected using key informant interviews, focus group discussions and formal survey administered to 428 randomly selected households from representative districts in three regional states. Regression analysis, one way ANOVA, chi-square and t-tests were used to analyze the quantitative data. The major sources of household income are crop production, livestock farming, forest products, off- and non-farm activities, and remittances and aid, contributing respectively to 46.3%, 27.6%, 17.0%, 6.3% and 2.8% of the household income. The relative importance of forest income to total household income varied significantly across wellbeing categories (P < 0.001), representing 31.8%, 15.5% and 9.9% respectively for poor, medium and rich households and also between male headed (16.1%) and female headed (23.5%) households(P < 0.001). In terms of magnitude, however, forest income differed significantly (P < 0.05) with wealth category of households but not with the gender of the household head. Forest income level was significantly and positively influenced by family size (P < 0.01) and being a member of gums and resins producers cooperative (P < 0.01), while distance to the forest resource (P < 0.01) and being in Tigray or Amhara Regional States (Oromia being reference state) negatively and significantly affected forest income levels of households. Attempts to promote sustainable management of dry forests should recognize these factors that influence access to forests and forest income level of different members of the community to ensure equitable responsibility and benefit sharing arrangements and inclusive participation for better livelihoods and conservation outcomes.

浙西北天然次生林群落物种多样性研究

对浙西北地区天然次生林群落植物物种多样性特征进行了研究,测定了群落植物生长型构成以及各层次植物物种的重要值,采用多种测度方法计算了群落各层次植物物种的丰富度指数、均匀度指数和多样性指数。结果表明:(1)浙西北地区天然次生林群落各层次优势种比较明显,乔木树种以青冈为主,灌木树种以柃木和木占优势,草本植物则以箬竹为主;(2)该地区天然次生林群落植物物种比较丰富,乔木树种种数最多,草本植物稀少;就各层次而言,草本层物种数最多,乔木层和灌木层比较接近,各层次的均匀度指数的趋势是灌木层最高,草本层最低,乔木层居中;以多种指标计算各层次物种多样性指数结果均显示,灌木层多样性指数最高,草本层最低,尽管草本层具有最高的丰富度;(3)封育时间长、人为干扰轻的地区具有较高的物种多样性指标以及数量指标,有利于生物多样性的保护。

Quantifying post logging biomass loss using satellite images and ground measurements in Southeast Cameroon

Forest logging in the Congo Basin has led to forest fragmentation due to logging infrastructures and felling gaps. In the same vein, forest concessions in the Congo Basin have increasing interest in the REDD＋ mechanism. However, there is little information or field data on carbon emissions from forest degradation caused by logging. To help fill this gap, Landsat 7 and 8 and SPOT 4 images of the East Region of Cameroon were processed and combined with field measurements （measurement of forest roads widths, felling gaps and log yards） to assess all disturbed areas. Also, measurements of different types of forest infrastructures helped to highlight emission factors. Forest contributes to 5.18 % of the degradation of the annual allowable cut （AAC） （84.53 ha） corresponding to 4.09 % of forest carbon stock （6.92 t ha^-1）. Felling gaps constitute the primary source of degradation, represented an estimated area of 32.41 ha （2 % of the cutting area） far ahead of primary roads （18.44ha） and skid trails （16.36 ha）. Assessment of the impact of degradation under the canopy requires the use of high resolution satellite images and field surveys.

Parasitic plant in natural Boswellia papyrifera stands at Humera, Northern Ethiopia

In Boswellia papyrifera （Del.） Hochst natural stands, we stud- ied the association of parasitic plants with B. papyrifera trees from which frankincense was tapped and marketed for domestic and export markets. Data on the rate of infection of parasitic plants on B. papyrifera was collected in three transects located at separate locations around Baha kar, northern Ethiopia. Each transect had ten circular sample plots of 400 m2 and separated by 100 m. Species composition, DBH, height, crown di- ameter, number of main, secondary and tertiary branches and number of parasitic plants on individual trees were recorded. Sixteen tree species were recorded in the combined sample plots. The parasitic plant associ- ated with B. papyrifera was identified as Tapinanthus globiferus. This parasite infected 38% of Boswellia trees in sample plots. The infection rate of the parasitic plant varied from 1 to 33 per Boswellia tree. The infection of T. globiferus on B. papyrifera was predominantly limited to tertiary small branchlets arising from secondary branches; parasitic plants were absent on thick main and secondary branches. In all plots, infectionof T. globiferus was exclusively limited to Boswellia trees. The influence of T. globiferus parasitism on growth of Boswellia trees and its influence on yield of incense production needs further investigation. Management of natural stands for frankincense production should include measures to reduce infection by T. globiferus.

Tree Population Dynamics of Three Altitudinal Vegetation Communities on Mount Cameroon(1989-2004)

Changes in permanent sample plots in the lowland,submontane and montane forests on Mount Cameroon(4,095 m above sea level),an active volcano,are described for 15 years from 1989 to 2004.Throughout the study period,the stocking level of trees with a diameter at breast height(DBH) ≥ 10 cm in the three forests were lower than in pan-tropical stands suggesting a significant impact of volcanic and human-related activities on the vegetation communities on the mountain.Annual mortality rates in the submontane and montane forests were consistent with those reported for comparable altitudinal ranges in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica.The annual mortality rate was higher in the lowland forest than other lowland sites included.Divergence between recruitment and mortality rates was large suggesting that the three vegetation communities have not reached their climax.The seven-year difference in half-life of large trees(with a DBH ≥ 50 cm) in the submontane and montane forests suggests an altitudinal effect on turnover of larger trees that in turn contributes to the frequent small stature of high altitude forests.There was little evidence of an altitudinal effect on species turnover and growth rate.This finding supports generalizations about the zero effect of growth on the stature of high altitude trees.Understanding forest dynamics is crucially important in the management of tropical montane environmentsand in this instance particularly so given the recent creation of the Mount Cameroon National Park.

Exploitation Patterns of Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) by Marine Artisanal Fisheries in Togo (West Africa)

Pelagic fish,including sardines and anchovies(Order Clupeiformes),are the most common species taken by artisanal marine fisheries along the Togolese coast.We investigated fisher involvement as well as fish captures over a period of 10 years,particularly of the European anchovy(Engraulis encrasicolus).Our results indicate that 60%of fishers operated from the Loméfishing harbour,most fishers being Ghanaians working seasonally in Togo.63.7%of all the fishers used canoes with outboards,a higher percentage compared to the previous decades.Seven fishing gear type were identified,with bottom gillnet and surface gillnet being the most commonly used.However,in the most important fishing camp in the country in terms of fish production(Loméfishing harbour),all fishers used shark nets.Overall,fisheries catches did not change significantly across years,but anchovy fishing effort and catch per unit of effort(CPUE)declined over the study period,suggesting some depletion of the species stocks on the Togolese coast and a demotivation of fishers.

热带森林生物多样性与世界遗产公约

《世界遗产公约》已由158个国家批准认可,它对全球具有文化和自然价值的场址的保护起着一个国际法规的作用。33处热带森林能被列入此公约的主要原因在于它们的全球生物多样性价值。这一系列场址成为全球生物多样性的精华之一,它约占全世界郁闭的热带森林的2.5%,对世界陆地生物多样性的保护作着重要贡献。虽然一系列的国际行动都将最终为森林的保护和可持续管理提供一个基本框架,但是《世界遗产公约》在当前提供了一个迅速调动就能起到保护大多数重要森林的机制。在过去,如果一个场址被认为很少受到人类活动的影响,它往往就被列入公约。然而,任何森林都有人类的足迹,同时我们也认为人类的活动应该与其维持全球生物多样性价值相一致。如果此公约能够更加直接地涉及人类活动对森林影响的普遍性事实,那么它就可以发挥更大的作用。为此,我们可采用更加适宜的以客观标准和指标为基础的管理方式,来确定其变化的阈限和引发管理响应,达到预期的发展多样性的目的。我们断定世界遗产中热带森林的最佳数量可以达到100个场址或场址群,这样的一个网络可以有效地保护世界森林生物多样性的绝大多数。目前世界热带森林的消耗速率敦促紧急的国际活动来确立一批优先保护的场址,而世界遗产保护区可以为此类活动提供最好的基本结构。

Groundwater recharge rates and surface runoff response to land use and land cover changes in semi-arid environments

The effects of land use and land cover(LULC)on groundwater recharge and surface runoff and how these are affected by LULC changes are of interest for sustainable water resources management.However,there is limited quantitative evidence on how changes to LULC in semi-arid tropical and subtropical regions affect the subsurface components of the hydrologic cycle,particularly groundwater recharge.Effective water resource management in these regions requires conclusive evidence and understanding of the effects of LULC changes on groundwater recharge and surface runoff.We reviewed a total of 27 studies(2 modeling and 25 experimental),which reported on pre-and post land use change groundwater recharge or surface runoff magnitude,and thus allowed to quantify the response of groundwater recharge rates and runoff to LULC.Comparisons between initial and subsequent LULC indicate that forests have lower groundwater recharge rates and runoff than the other investigated land uses in semi-arid tropical/subtropical regions.Restoration of bare land induces a decrease in groundwater recharge from 42% of precipitation to between 6 and 12% depending on the final LULC.If forests are cleared for rangelands,groundwater recharge increases by 7.8±12.6%,while conversion to cropland or grassland results in increases of 3.4±2.5 and 4.4±3.3%,respectively.Rehabilitation of bare land to cropland results in surface runoff reductions of between 5.2 and 7.3%.The conversion of forest vegetation to managed LULC shows an increase in surface runoff from 1 to 14.1% depending on the final LULC.Surface runoff was reduced from 2.5 to 1.1% when grassland is converted to forest vegetation.While there is general consistency in the results from the selected case studies,we conclude that there are few experimental studies that have been conducted in tropical and subtropical semi-arid regions,despite that many people rely heavily on groundwater for their livelihoods.Therefore,there is an urgent need to increase the body of quantitative evidence given the pressure of growing human population and climate change on water resources in the region.

Land-use and land-cover affect inland fish catch in two rivers of Central Africa

Land-cover change can affect inland fisheries,which underpin food security of millions of people worldwide.Removal of forests from very large floodplains has been found to decrease fish catch via loss of feeding and nursery habitat for fish.However,it is unknown if similar effects occur in smaller rivers with limited floodplain areas.Little is also known about the mechanisms by which land-cover changes affect inland fish catch.Here,we assessed land-use and land-cover(LULC)effects on fish catch,diet,and condition at sites in two medium-sized rivers of Cameroon,in Central Africa.We found that LULC explained 30%of the variation in fish catch,with the catch of five species being positively,and of two species being negatively,related to floodplain forests.The niche breadth of fish diets was higher in the river surrounded by forests than in the river surrounded by agricultural land.However,contrary to expectations,condition of the fish,as indicated by occurrence of diseases or deformities,eroded fins,lesions or tumors,was not related to LULC.Our results support the notions that floodplain forests support fish populations in rivers with limited floodplain areas in ways similar to that of rivers with large floodplains,and that LULC affects fish populations via changes in fish diets and instream habitat features(i.e.,riparian canopy closure,water clarity,substrate heterogeneity,and habitat volume).These effects imply that prevailing changes in LULC threaten the food and livelihood security services provided by inland fisheries,highlighting the importance of policies that maintain native vegetation along riverbanks and in floodplain areas.