Impact of enclosure management on soil properties and microbial biomass in a restored semi-arid rangeland, Kenya

Rangeland degradation is a serious problem throughout sub-Saharan Africa and its restoration is a challenge for the management of arid and semi-arid areas. In Lake Baringo Basin of Kenya, communities and individual farmers are restoring indigenous vegetation inside enclosures in an effort to combat severe land degradation and address their livelihood problems. This study evaluated the impact of enclosure management on soil properties and microbial biomass, being key indicators of soil ecosystem health. Six reseeded communal enclosures using soil embankments as water-harvesting structures and strictly regulated access were selected, varying in age from 13 to 23 years. In six private enclosures, ranging from 3 to 17 years in age, individual farmers emulated the communal enclosure strategy and restored areas for their exclusive use. Significant decreases in bulk density, and increases in the soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and microbial biomass contents and stocks were found in the enclosures as compared with the degraded open rangeland. In the private enclosures, the impact of rehabilitation on the soil quality was variable, and soil quality was in general lower than that obtained under communal management. The significant increase of absolute stocks of carbon, nitrogen and microbial biomass compared to the degraded open rangeland indicates the potential for the restoration of soil quality through range rehabilitation. Over-sowing with indigenous legume fodder species could improve total nitrogen content in the soil and nutritional value of the pastures as well.

Effects of Post Eviction Resettlement on Land-Use and Cover Change in Uganda’s Oil Exploration Areas

Evaluation of the changes in land use and land cover change (LULCC) in respect to oil exploration across the Albertine region in Uganda has been focused around the exploration areas and protected areas, with no attention to the potential impacts of evictees’ activities on resettled areas. This study used LANDSAT images to analyze the land use and land cover changes (LULCC) among the period before eviction (2002 and 2005) at the climax of eviction and resettlements (2005-2011), and during the post-resettlement period (2011-2015) to quantify the impacts of resettlements on the environment. LANDSAT images were processed using ERDAS IMAGINE software and analyzed using ArcGIS 10.1 to determine LULCC in relation to post-eviction resettlement in the study area. Results from the study indicate. The results of the study indicate that vegetation reduced by 33.08 percent, woodland were converted into settlements by 48 percent while farmlands increased by 18.3 percent. Non vegetated areas increased during resettlements however they reduced five years after eviction which indicated the ability of the ecosystem to stabilize. The study proved that post eviction induced resettlements can yield potential environmental effects to resettled areas. It is important therefore to plan and implement other means of additional source of income and construction materials for evictees to abate vegetation clearance and hence rescue the woodland. The study also recommends maintenance of an optimum population and well-planned pre eviction resettlement schemes.

Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Coastal Area of Watamu Mida Creek, Kenya

Watamu Mida creek coastal areas, mainly the shoreline, the mangroves and the general environment have been changing due to the impact of land use change, shoreline erosion, human population pressure and the expansion of tourism sector. This research assesses the impact of land use change on mangrove dynamics and shoreline erosion as well as the main driving factors that cause these changes in Watamu Midacreek. This study uses old aerial photographs (1969 and 1989), current high resolution satellite images World view (2010) and ground truthing in combination with information from the local community to analyze the impact of change in land use from 1969-2010. Land use and cover types were visually interpreted, digitized and delineated using aerial photographs of 1969, 1989 and 2010 satellite images in ArcGIS.9.3.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 software. The results of the land use change between 1969 and 1989 showed a decline of scrub land, miscellaneous coastal vegetation, coastal bush, thicket with trees and mangroves, whereas new types of land use which emerged during this period were town and barren land. The greatest land use change rate observed between 1969 and 1989 was in miscellaneous coastal vegetation at 2.5%, while coastal bush experienced a significant negative change rate of 6.5%. The main land use changes observed between 1989 and 2010 were increasing coastal bush, an expansion of town and urban areas, hotels and private holiday houses. Encroachments into the mangrove forest have been observed both by local people and foreign private holiday house owners. The change in land use had an impact on shoreline changes as well. Areas mainly covered by old trees, and coastal bushes which protected the shoreline from erosion currently have been converted into very big hotels and several private holiday house complexes. The main drivers of land use change were human population growth and policy (through weakness of law enforcement). Policies and regulations which are not currently implemented need to be updated based on the current pressure-state situation, and there should be strong law enforcement and strict regulation to control any unplanned developments along the coast and in the neighboring hinterland.

Assessment of Mangrove Covers Change and Biomass in Mida creek, Kenya

This study uses old aerial photographs, current high resolution satellite images and ground truthing to analyze the patterns and dynamics of Mida Creek mangrove forest changes over 41 years from 1969-2010. A non-distractive method was used to collect data on 25 sample plots and 934 trees were measured to estimate the above ground biomass and carbon stock of the forest. General published allometric equations with variables of Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) and wood density (ρ) which were species specific were used to estimate above ground biomass. A decline in mangrove cover (16%) took place between 1969 and 1989 and between 1989 and 2010 an increment was observed in mangrove cover (1452.5 ha in 1989 to 1655.7 ha in 2010). Signs of degradation within the mangrove forest were observed in 2010 in which the degraded land covered 8.8 ha. The total above ground biomass and carbon estimated on the 25 plots was 296.14 ton·ha-1 and 148.07 ton·ha-1 respectively. Mida Creek mangrove forest is largely dominated by the presence of Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriop tagal and the regeneration of these two species is very high. If the present dominance of the two species continues it will affect the species composition of the current mangrove forest. This study recommends a better management plan for the mangrove forest through increasing involvement of the surrounding communities. Furthermore, there should be a way to control selective and illegal cutting of mangroves and promote other species of trees for domestic and commercial use to reduce the high dependency on the use of mangroves for construction purposes.

Field curing methods and storage duration affect the quality of hay from six rangeland grass species in Kenya

Introduction:Rangelands are important source of pasture for livestock in Kenya since time immemorial to pastoral households.However,seasonality on forage availability has been a big challenge in meeting animals’feed requirements.This demands harvest and storage of pastures for use during dry seasons.Hay making has been done to bridge this forage deficit periods.However,hay quality in the rangelands is affected by curing methods,phonological stage at harvest,and the storage duration.We therefore evaluated the effect of field curing and storage duration on the quality(Crude Protein(CP))of hay from six rangeland grasses in Kenya.Methods:The grasses evaluated are Chloris roxburghiana,Eragrostis superba,Enteropogon macrostachyus,Cenchrus ciliaris,Chloris gayana,and Sorghum sudanense.These grasses are the common species in the rangelands of Kenya and have been promoted in the past for hay making and reseeding interventions.The grasses were harvested at the mature flowering stage(12 weeks phenological stage),which is a period that provides high biomass without much effect on quality as practiced in the study area.The grasses were then cured in the field for 1,2,and 3 days before baling and stored indoors for 12,24,and 36 weeks.Samples were taken for CP content determination at the three periods following Macro-Kjeldahl Method.Results:There was significant decline(p≤0.05)in crude protein content in all the grass species with storage periods.Curing period did not affect the CP content for all the species at a given storage period;however,3 days curing changed the hay color from green to brownish which reduces palatability and consequently reduced feed intake.Storage period of over 12 weeks adversely lowered CP to less than 6% for all the species which is the required minimum level for animal under production and maintenance.S.Sudanense had significantly higher decline in CP after 24 weeks storage compared to the other species.Conclusions:Therefore,hay from the six grass species harvested at mature flowering stage(12-week phonological stage)and stored longer than 12 weeks supplies the animals with low CP.Also,to maintain palatability,1-2 days curing is recommended for the six grass species.

Plant species composition and diversity depending on piospheres and seasonality in the southern rangelands of Kenya

Introduction:Scarcity of water in the rangelands of Kenya has led to the introduction of piospheres.Previous research has however produced contrasting results on the effects of piospheres and seasonality on ShannonWiener’s diversity index,and therefore,this information is still deficient.In this study,the impact of these piospheres on plant species composition,diversity,and richness was assessed.Methods:Vegetation sampling was done during both the long rains(April)and the dry season(August).Three piosphere types(dam,trough,and a seasonal river)were studied using 0.25 m2 quadrats to sample vegetation at intervals of 20 m along 100-m transects.Four 100-m transects were used per piosphere(north,east,south,and west directions).Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index was used to determine species richness and composition.Twoway ANOVA was used to determine if piospheric distance had an effect on species diversity,richness,and evenness using GenStat 15th edition.Results:A total of 22 grasses and 29 forbs were recorded in the study area.The most abundant grasses near the piospheres were Eragrostis tenuifolia(12.9%)and Cynodon dactylon(10.6%).E.tenuifolia is an increaser species and was therefore most abundant in areas of severe grazing while C.dactylon has been known to be tolerant to grazing.The most abundant forbs were Crotalaria brevidens(37.5%).The Shannon-Wiener diversity index significantly increased(F=25.07,P=0.001)with distance from the three piospheres owing to the high grazing intensity near the piospheres and was significantly different between piospheres,being higher(F=10.05,P=0.001)at 20 m from the river(1.2±0.1)compared to a similar distance from the dam(0.9±0.1)and the trough(0.8±0.2).This was probably because the trough was smaller in size compared to the other piospheres,thereby concentrating more grazing animals per unit area and causing a greater impact on plant species.Conclusions:The study demonstrated that species diversity,richness,and evenness were low near the piospheres due to heavy grazing.Similarly,the lowest species diversity,richness,and evenness were recorded near the trough compared to the dam and the river.This study therefore recommends that range reseeding and rest period be done to rehabilitate degraded areas and facilitate plant regeneration.Larger piospheres should also be used to minimize animal impact per unit area.

Impacts of long-term land-use changes on herd size and mobility among pastoral households in Amboseli ecosystem,Kenya

Introduction:Long-term changes in rangeland ecosystems of the world have impacted on the livestock production,a key livelihood strategy in these areas.This paper presents perceptions of the pastoral community on the dynamics of pastoral livelihoods under three land-use types namely nomadic,semi-nomadic,and sedentary in Amboseli ecosystem located in southern Kenya.Structured questionnaire was used to collect data concerning household livestock herds,perceived livestock trends and their causes,importance of migration,sedentarization,and land subdivision,and were administered to respondents randomly selected from the three land-use types.Results:The study shows that the livestock herd size was higher in nomadic(117.1)and lower in sedentary(56.6)land-use site.The majority of the respondents in nomadic(79%),semi-nomadic(73%),and sedentary(64%)reported a declining trend in household herd size.The declines were mostly attributed to recurrent droughts and loss of grazing lands.Conclusions:Pastoralism remains an important livelihood strategy to majority of households in the study area;therefore,to achieve sustainable livelihood strategies,grazing lands should be maintained.

Effect of rangeland rehabilitation on the herbaceous species composition and diversity in Suswa catchment,Narok County,Kenya

Introduction:Land degradation is a serious environmental problem of our time.In Kenya,it is estimated that 30%of the total land mass is severely degraded.Suswa catchment within Narok County is a good example with gullies of over 25 m deep and 30 m wide.In response to the increasing land degradation in the area,the Sustainable Land Management(SLM)project rehabilitated the catchment through establishment of soil and water conservation structures such as cutoff drains,semicircular bunds,and water retention ditches.Despite the various rehabilitation approaches carried out,little research has been done to ascertain their effect on successful vegetation recovery.This coupled with the fact that many restoration approaches have failed in East Africa and Kenya in particular gave drive to the study.The objective of this study was to determine the effects of rangeland rehabilitation on herbaceous species composition and diversity in a severely degraded rangeland.Methods:To assess the diversity of aboveground herbaceous layer in the rehabilitated and degraded areas along a slope(upper,middle,and lower),line transect and quadrat count methods were used.Within each slope position,three 100-m-long transects were placed across the hill parallel to one another 30 m apart using a tape.The species hit,the closest species to the hit,and hits on bare ground were recorded.Along the same transects,1-m2 quadrats were placed 25 m apart and aboveground biomass determined by the use of the destructive method.In the determination of species richness,diversity,relative abundance,percentage cover,and species composition,the Shannon-Wiener diversity index was used.Data collected on vegetation attributes was subjected to analysis of variance(ANOVA)using Genstat and Tukey’s HSD post hoc used in means separation where F values were significant.Results:The results showed that percent cover(74.67%),aboveground biomass(1459 kg/ha),relative abundance,richness,composition,and diversity of perennial grasses significantly(P≤0.05)increased downslope and were higher in the rehabilitated area than in the degraded area.On the contrary,forbs and annual grasses were significantly(P≤0.05)higher within the degraded area compared to the rehabilitated area and increased upslope.Conclusions:In general,herbaceous species diversity,species richness,relative abundance,percentcomposition,biomass production,and percent cover of perennial grasses significantly increased downslopeand were higher in the rehabilitated area compared to the degraded area.On the contrary,the sameattributes for forbs and annual grasses were higher in the degraded area and increased upslope.The studyconcluded that effective rangeland rehabilitation has the potential to enhance vegetation regeneration andhence forage productivity.Conclusions:ln general,herbaceous species diversity,species richness,relative abundance,percent composition,biomass production,and percent cover of perennial grasses significantly increased downslopeand were higher in the rehabilitated area compared to the degraded area On the contrary,the same attributes for forbs and annual grasses were higher in the degraded area and increased upslope.The studyconduded that effective rangeland rehabilitation has the potential to enhance vegetation regeneration andhence forage productivity.

Effect of piospheres on physio-chemical soil properties in the Southern Rangelands of Kenya

Introduction:Water-based interventions haphazardly introduced in the drylands of Kenya have led to the introduction of piospheres used as concentration mounts.Not much is known about the effect of these piospheres on soil physio-chemical properties,especially in the Kenyan rangelands where the government and other development agencies have created piospheres aimed at curbing water shortages and sustaining livestock production.The study assessed the effect of piospheres on soil physio-chemical characteristics in the southern rangelands of Kajiado,Kenya,in order to provide evidence-based insights that will be useful in guiding future water interventions.Methods:Soil samples were collected within 0.25-m2 plots at 20-m intervals along 100-m transects from three piospheres(a dam,a trough,and a seasonal river).Two-way ANOVA was used to determine if there were significant differences in soil parameters between piospheric distances.Results:Soil bulk density significantly different between piospheric distances(F=22.25,P=0.001)and piospheres(F=13.10,P=0.002),being highest at 20 m from the trough(1.1–1.21 gcm−3)relative to a similar distance from the dam(1.01–1.20 gcm−3)and the river(1.1–1.17 gcm−3).On the other hand,mean soil aggregate stability significantly increased(F=66.89,P=0.001)with piospheric distance,being lowest at 20 m from the trough(43.9–46.2%),the dam(43.1–48.9%),and the river(46.6–47.5%).Conclusions:High soil bulk density and consequent low soil porosity,hydraulic conductivity,and moisture content demonstrated that grazing was high near the piospheres.It is recommended that livestock should be herded away from the piospheres after drinking water to ensure that grazing livestock spend less time near the piospheres if reduced soil compaction is to be realized.Piospheres should also be better planned and placed at landscape level to exploit landscape heterogeneity.

Effects of holistic grazing management on milk production,weight gain,and visitation to grazing areas by livestock and wildlife in Laikipia County,Kenya

Background:Grazing is an important management tool for maintaining healthy ecosystems and improving rangelands productivity.However,its effectiveness for this purpose is dependent on timing and frequency of grazing,as well as the type of animal.Understanding the effects of grazing management on rangeland ecosystems is critical in ensuring sustainable use of grazing resources and enhanced livestock production.This study assessed the effects of holistic grazing on animal productivity and range use pattern in Laikipia County of Kenya.Results:The results revealed that the average milk yields(106±20.1)of animals in holistic grazing areas(HGA)were significantly(p<0.05)higher than those in traditional grazing areas(TGA)(101±20.1).Weight gain of animals in HGA was significantly(0.13±0.01)higher as compared to those in TGA(0.07±0.01).The number of livestock grazing was significantly(p<0.05)higher in HGA(74±10%)than those in TGA(57±10%).In addition,the number of wildlife grazing was significantly(p<0.05)higher in HGA(74±18%)than in TGA(32±18%).Conclusions:The results indicate that holistic grazing management has the potential to improve animal performance,as well as condition of range areas as evident in the preference shown by frequent visits to HGA by both livestock and wildlife.

Drought Adaptation and Coping Strategies Among the Turkana Pastoralists of Northern Kenya

This study highlights drought characteristics and the many responses to drought stresses employed by Turkana pastoralists of northwestern Kenya. Multiple data sources, including socioeconomic interviews with 302 households, focus group discussions, and informal interviews with pastoralists were used to capture various aspects of drought and drought adaptation and coping practices.Standardized precipitation index derived from long-term rainfall data obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Service was used to quantify different degrees of drought intensity between 1950 and 2012. Results revealed that extreme drought events were increasingly frequent, and have impacted negatively on pastoral livelihoods. In order to adapt to or cope with climatic anomalies, households are using a variety of strategies. In addition to the traditional short-term coping mechanisms, the long-term adaptation strategies used include diversification of livelihood sources; livestock mobility to track forage and water resources;diversification of herd composition to benefit from the varied drought and disease tolerance, as well as fecundity of diverse livestock species; and sending children to school for formal education as a long term investment expected to pay back through income from employment. Policies anddevelopment interventions that reduce risks, diminish livelihood constraints, and expand opportunities for increased household resilience to drought are critical complements to the existing pastoral strategies.

Modelling surface runoff using the soil conservation service-curve number method in a drought prone agro-ecological zone in Rwanda

Runoff farming is reported to improve land productivity and crop yields in hot and dry climates.This study was conducted to assess the available rainwater that can be harvested in a conserved catchment in a drought prone agro-ecological zone.The study was carried out in the Cyili sub-catchment,southern province of Rwanda,which has an irregular rainfall pattern and unexploited runoff water.Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number method (SCS-CN),CROPWAT model version 8 and Hazen model with an average daily rainfall data recorded from 1971 to 2016 were applied to estimate the runoff and water requirements in the study area.Findings of the study revealed that more than half rainfall water received in the catchment was lost through runoff (229.8 mm) and effective rainfall was lower (246.9 mm) than the actual crop water requirement for maize (330 mm).The expected seasonal surface runoff volume to be harvested by the farmers was 3008 m3 ha-1 per season and 1.29 × 106 m3 per season for the entire whole sub-catchment (430 ha).Based on Hazen model,the return period of low rainfall (dry spell) event would be expected every 2 years with a 98% probability of occurrence.Cyili sub-catchment has higher potential runoff volume to stabilize the deficit of water demand in the period of short rainy season.This suggests that rainwater harvesting through supplementary irrigation is an option to improve the crop yield in the dry period as well as in the annual dry season.

Effect of water conservation measures on soil moisture and maize yield under drought prone agro-ecological zones in Rwanda

This study was conducted to assess agricultural practices for generating maximum maize productivity in drought prone agro-ecological zones. The experiment was conducted in Cyili sub-catchment in Southern Province of Rwanda, which has an irregular rainfall distribution and a prolonged dry season. The experimental design consisted of a randomized design and each treatment was replicated three times. Findings from this study revealed that maize grain yield and yield components, such as plant height, cob diameter and length, number of leaves, 100 grain weight, and yield per plant were highly significantly affected (P < 0.001) by all water conservation methods tested. Only germination rate was not significantly impacted (p > 0.05). Supplementary irrigation treatment increased maize yield production to 11,982 kg ha-1. Mulching increased yield significantly to 8089 kg ha-1. Ridges yielded 5937 kg ha-1, and rainfed treatment yielded 4755 kg ha-1 of maize. Based on Pearson's correlation coefficients, grain yield and yield components were positively correlated and statistically significant (p < 0.001) under various water conservation methods. Supplementary irrigation through rainwater harvesting was found to be a more promising option for maize growers to mitigate dry spell and stabilize maize production in rainfall deficient agro-ecological conditions not only in Rwanda, but in sub-Sahara Africa.

Spatial and temporal analysis of forest cover change in Falgore Game Reserve in Kano, Nigeria

Introduction:Multi-temporal land-use and land-cover data provides a historical vehicle for determining and evaluating long-term trends in bio-physical landscapes.Land-use and land-cover assessment and mapping is one of the most useful applications of geographic information system(GIS)for planning,management,and development.This study analyses the spatio-temporal pattern of forest cover dynamics for three decades in Falgore Game Reserve in Kano,Nigeria.The dynamics of forest cover transition during 1985–2015 was analysed using multi-temporal Landsat imagery.Results:The spatio-temporal analysis shows that moderate woodland dominated in 1985(46%)and 2005(57%)but was replaced by open woodland in 2015 which accounts for 58%of the total area of Falgore Game Reserve(FGR)currently.Dense woodland occupied the least area of the total forest estate that varied between 17%in 1985 and 1%in 2015.The results indicate that dense woodland,moderate woodland,and very open woodland were decreased at annual average rate of 3,1,and 0.4%.Open woodland had expanded from 21,127 ha in 1985 to 53,392 ha in 2015.The main drivers of forest resource degradation in the area were found to be excessive fuelwood collection,overgrazing,agricultural expansion,and forest fire.Conclusions:These findings suggest that protection strategies employed in FGR were not effective as deforestation is still evident in the reserve.Government and environmental based NGOs should therefore prioritize effective and efficient conservation strategy for present and future use of forest resources,in addition to the provision of alternative livelihood sources to communities proximate to the reserve.This will ensure the socio-economic well-being of the locals and sustainable conservation of biological diversity in the area.

Morphological and productivity responses of Buffel grass(Cenchrus ciliaris)and Guinea grass(Panicum maximum)ecotypes to simulated grazing in a semi-arid environment

Background Livestock production is an economically significant activity in grassland-based production systems with herbivory,a critical process in modifying plant structure and regulating biomass dynamics in these areas.Methods A grazing simulation experiment was undertaken in a semi-arid environment in Kenya to determine the effects of clipping frequency and intensity on the morphology and productivity of Cenchrus ciliaris and Panicum maximum grass ecotypes.The ecotypes were clipped at different frequencies(every 2,4,and 12 weeks)and different intensities(5,10,and 15 cm clipping heights).The morphological responses of the grass ecotypes and biomass yields were determined.Results The grass ecotypes showed significantly(p<0.05)varied responses to cutting frequency and intensity.Morphological parameters,tillering,and biomass production were all affected by clipping frequency and intensity.The highest dry matter(DM)yields were recorded under low frequency(LF)clipping,followed by moderate frequency(MF)clipping and high frequency(HF)clipping.LF clipping in C.ciliaris ecotype Kilifi was 20%and 31%more compared to MF and HF clipping.No significant difference in yields was found by cutting the C.ciliaris ecotype Magadi at 4-and 12-week intervals,even though clipping at 2-week intervals cumulatively yielded less biomass.There was a biomass yield reduction in P.maximum ecotype Taveta of 23%and 25%for MF and HF clipping,respectively,while for ecotype Isinya,the reduction was 13%and 15%for MF and HF,respectively.Clipping intensity had a significant(p<0.05)effect on cumulative yields in C.ciliaris ecotypes,but not P.maximum.Ecotypic differences were apparent in both C.ciliaris and P.maximum ecotype DM yields.Conclusions The results in this study suggest that clipping range grass ecotypes less frequently(4-and 12-week intervals)and at 10 and 15 cm stubble heights results in higher biomass yields.Generally,LF and MF grazing and cutting strategies are advantageous for semi-arid lands.Combinations of frequent and high-intensity utilization grazing strategies should be discouraged as they are likely to lead to reduced biomass yields and negative effects both on grasses and on the environment.

Non-timber forest products and their contribution to households income around Falgore Game Reserve in Kano, Nigeria

Introduction:In the recent decades,there has been growing interest in the contribution of non-timber forest products(NTFPs)to livelihoods,development,and poverty alleviation among the rural populace.This has been prompted by the fact that communities living adjacent to forest reserves rely to a great extent on the NTFPs for their livelihoods,and therefore any effort to conserve such resources should as a prerequisite understand how the host communities interact with them.Methods:Multistage sampling technique was used for the study.A representative sample of 400 households was used to explore the utilization of NTFPs and their contribution to households’income in communities proximate to Falgore Game Reserve(FGR)in Kano State,Nigeria.Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis were used to analyze and summarize the data collected.Results:The findings reveal that communities proximate to FGR mostly rely on the reserve for firewood,medicinal herbs,fodder,and fruit nuts for household use and sales.Income from NTFPs accounts for 20–60%of the total income of most(68%)of the sampled households.The utilization of NTFPs was significantly influenced by age,sex,household size,main occupation,distance to forest and market.Conclusions:The findings suggest that NTFPs play an important role in supporting livelihoods,and therefore provide an important safety net for households throughout the year particularly during periods of hardship occasioned by drought.It is suggested that stakeholders should prioritize technical and financial support programs on agricultural value addition and handcrafts that would promote off-farm income generating activities,in addition,provision of alternative domestic cooking energy such as biogas in communities proximate to FGR in order to reduce pressure relating to fuelwood gathering from the forest,this will help to improve forest resources quality.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF CROP-LIVESTOCK FARMS IN AFRICA

Crop-livestock farms across Africa are highly variable due to in agroecological and socioeconomic factors,the latter shaping the demand and supply of livestock products.Crop-livestock farms in Africa in the 20-first century are very different from most mixed farms elsewhere in the world.African crop-livestock farms are smaller in size,have fewer livestock,lower productivity and less dependency on imported feed than farms in most countries of Europe,the Americas and the intensive agricultural systems of Asia.This paper discusses the role African crop-livestock farms have in the broader socio-agricultural economy,and how these are likely to change adapting to pressures brought on by the intensification of food systems.This intensification implies increasing land productivity(more food per hectare),often leading to more livestock heads per farm,producing fertilized feeds in croplands and importing feed supplements from the market.This discussion includes(1)the links between crop yields,soil fertility and crop-livestock integration,(2)the increasing demand for livestock products and the land resources required to meet to this demand,and(3)the opportunities to integrate broader societal goals into the development of crop-livestock farms.There is ample room for development of crop-livestock farms in Africa,and keeping integration as part of the development will help prevent many of the mistakes and environmental problems related to the intensification of livestock production observed elsewhere in the world.This development can integrate biodiversity,climate change adaptation and mitigation to the current goals of increasing productivity and food security.The inclusion of broader goals could help farmers access the level of finance required to implement changes.