Biodiversity and Invasibility: Distribution Patterns of Invasive Plant Species in the Himalayas, Nepal

Invasive plant species are exerting a serious threat to biological diversity in many regions of the world. To understand plant invasions this study aims to test which of the two plant invasiveness hypotheses; ‘low native diversity' vs. ‘high native diversity', is supported by the regional distribution patterns of invasive plant species in the Himalayas,Nepal. This study is based on data retrieved from published literatures and herbarium specimens. The relationship between invasive plant species distribution patterns and that of native plant species is elucidated by scatter plots, as well as by generalized linear models. The native plant species and invasive plant species have similar distribution patterns and the maximum number of invasive plant species is found in the same altitudinal range where the highest richness for native tree species is found. There is a clear trend of higher invasive plant richness in regions where native tree species richness is relatively high.Consequently, the native plant richness is highest in the central phytogeographic region, followed by the eastern and the western regions, respectively. The invasive plant species also follows a similar trend.Additionally, the invasive plant species richness was positively correlated with anthropogenic factors such as human population density and the number of visiting tourists. This study supports the hypothesis that ‘high native diversity' supports or facilitates invasive plant species. Further, it indicates that nativeand invasive plant species may require similar natural conditions, but that the invasive plant species seem more dependent and influenced by anthropogenic disturbance factors.

Distribution Pattern of Vascular Plant Species of Mountains in Nepal and their Fate Against Global Warming

This study aims to find the altitudinal distribution pattern of vascular plant species reported from high mountain of Nepal(Manang) along the whole Himalayan elevation gradient, and evaluate their fate against climate change. Data was gathered from multiple sources, field investigations, literatures, and herbarium specimens. Altogether, 303 vascular plant species were reported from Manang. We used a published data to calculate distribution range of each species by interpolating between its upper and lower elevation limits. The relationship between elevation and species richness is elucidated by generalized linear model. The consequence of global warming upon Manang's vascular plant species was estimated based on projected temperature change for next century and adiabatic lapse rate along the elevation gradient of the Himalayas. The vascular plant species richness has a unimodel relationship with elevation along the whole elevation gradient of Nepal as well as in three biogeographical regions of Nepal. Vascular plants of Manang are found distributed from low land Terai to high alpine regions of Nepal and their elevation distribution range varies from 200 to 4700 m. Out of 303 vascular plants of Manang, only seven species might be affected if temperature increase by 1.5°C, whereas at least 70 species will be affected with 5°C temperature increased. However, the majority of species(233 species) have wider distribution range(> 1000 m) and more than 5°C temperature tolerance range, thus they are likely to be less affected from global warming by the end of 21 st century.

Meropenem as an Alternative Antibiotic Agent for Suppression of Agrobacterium in Genetic Transformation of Orchid

A case of Meropenem as a novel antibacterial agent to suppress and eliminate Agrobacterium tumefaciens in the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of orchid protocorm-like bodies （PLBs） has been reported in this article. The in vitro activities of meropenem and four comparator antibacterial agents against three Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains, LBA4404, EHA101, and GV3101, were assessed. In addition, the effect of meropenem on the growth of Dendrobium phalaenopsis PLBs was determined. Compared with other commonly used antibiotics （including ampicillin, carbenicillin, cefotaxime, and cefoperazone）, meropenem showed the highest activity in suppressing all tested A. tumefaciens strains （minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] 〈 0.5 mg L^-1, which is equal to minimum bactericidal concentration [MBC]）. Meropenem, at all tested concentrations, except for 10 mg L^-1 concentration, had little negative effect on the growth of orchid tissues. The A. tumefaciens strain EHA101 in genetic transformation with vector plG121Hm in infected PLBs of the orchid was visually undetectable after a two-month subculture in 1/2 MS medium with 50 mg L^-1 meropenem and 25 mg L^-1 hygromacin. The expression and incorporation of the transgenes were confirmed by GUS histochemical assay and PCR analysis. Meropenem may be an alternative antibiotic for the effective suppression of A. tumefaciens in genetic transformation.

Photosynthesis,Metabolite Composition and Anatomical Structure of Oryza sativa and Two Wild Relatives,O.grandiglumis and O.alta

Photosynthesis, enzyme activities and metabolite pools associated with primary carbon metabolism in leaves were studied in O. grandiglumis and O. alta （wild relatives of rice which produce high biomass） versus O. sativa （a japonica cultivar and a indica-japonica hybrid） to assess their potential for identifying traits which might be utilized to enhance rice productivity. The wild relatives had higher rates of photosynthesis on a fresh weight basis, and higher water use efficiency than the O. sativa lines. There were no striking differences in activities of a number of key enzymes in carbon and nitrogen metabolism between the wild relatives and cultivated rice lines. Along with higher rates of photosynthesis on a fresh weight basis, the leaves of the two wild species had higher nitrate content, higher levels of starch, glucose and fructose, and higher levels of organic acids （malate, succinate and acetate）, compared to the O. sativa lines. The results suggested that O. grandiglumis and O. alta have differences in physiology and primary metabolism which might be exploited to improve growth and productivity of cultivated rice.

Variation in Plant Functional Traits along Altitudinal Gradient and Land Use Types in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal

Functional traits are predictors of plants in response to environmental stimuli. They represent specific functional adaptations to various environmental stresses. This study deals with the variation in plant functional traits along elevation gradient and land-use types in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Two field investigations in April and September, 2011 were made to collect samples. Sampling was done from 2200 - 3800 m asl varying approx. 400 m. East and west facing aspects of each valley were chosen. In each aspect four land-use type categories including disturbed (cultivated land, exploited forest and meadow) and less disturbed natural forest were selected. A transect of 25 m long and 2.5 m wide was laid. Different eight traits of plants including lifeform, plant height, clonality, spinescence, leaf dry matter content, stem specific density, twig dry matter content and twig drying time were examined for 60 plant species belonging to 31 families, collected from 40 sampled plots. Nine different types of growth forms were recorded. Plant height of the investigated species ranged from 0.03 - 15 m. The stolon consisting species were dominant in exploited forests. Diversity of clonal species was more in meadow and non-clonal species were dominant in all the altitudes. Only eight species consisted of spines. In the disturbed land-use categories, we found high variation in a particular trait. Correlation analyses revealed the significant relationship (p < 0.01) among different traits. Herbs and shrubs were dominant at higher elevation and in disturbed land-use categories. Species from high altitude were mostly short basal herbs, while spinescence and tall trees were observed at lower altitudes. Species recorded in meadows and exploited forests showed high variation in traits due to disturbance mainly grazing, fire, litter collection and trampling. Altitudinal variation, climatic conditions and disturbance most strongly influence trait expression in the study area.

Predicting suitable habitat of an invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus under future climate scenarios in Chitwan Annapurna Landscape,Nepal

Chitwan-Annapuma Landscape(CHAL)in central Nepal is known for its rich biodiversity and the landscape is expected to provide corridors for species range shift in response to climate change.Environmental assessments have identified biological invasions and other anthropogenic activities as major threats to the biodiversity in the CHAL.One of the rapidly spreading Invasive Alien Plant species(IAPs)in the CHAL is Parthenium hysterophorus L.,a neotropical invasive weed of global significance.This study aimed to investigate the current and future projected suitable habitat of P.hysterophorus in the CHAL using MaxEnt modelling in three'Representative Concentration Pathways'(RCPs 2.6,4.5 and 8.5)corresponding to different greenhouse gases emissiontrajectories for the year 2050 and 2070.A total of 288species occurrence points,six bioclimatic variablesmean diurnal range,isothermality,annual precipitation,precipitation of driest month,precipitation seasonality,precipitation of driest quarter and two topographic variables(aspect and slope)were selected for MaxEnt modelling.Potential range shift in terms of increase or decline in the suitable habitat areas under the projected scenarios were calculated.Slope and annual precipitation were the most important variables that explained the current distribution of P.hysterophorus.Twenty percent of the total area of CHAL was predicted to be suitable habitat for the growth of P.hysterophorus in the current climatic condition.Highest gain in the suitable habitat of this noxious weed was found under RCP 4.5 scenario in 2050 and 2070.whereas there will be a loss in thesuitable habitat under RCP 8.5 scenario in 2050 and2070.Out of four physiographic regions present in CHAL,three regions-Siwalik,Middle Mountain and High Mountain have suitable habitat for P.hysterophorus under current climatic condition.The mountainous region is likely to be affected more than the Siwalik region by further spread of P.fhysteropfhorus in the future under low(RCP 2.6)to medium(RCP 4.5)emission scenarios.The suitable habitat for this weed is likely to increase in the protected areas of mountain regions(Langtang National Park,Annapurna Conservation Area and Manaslu Conservation Area)in the future.The results have revealed a risk of spreading P.hysterophorus from present localities to non-invaded areas in the current and future climatic condition.Such risk needs to be considered by decision makers and resource managers while planning for effective management of this weed to reduce its ecological and economic impacts in the CHAL.

QTL Analysis of Yield Components in Rice Using a Cheongcheong/Nagdong Doubled Haploid Genetic Map

In this study, only two of 12 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting yield and yield components were identified in a single year, indicating that individual QTLs are probably sensitive to the environment. A rice growth survey of “Cheongcheong” and “Nag dong” in a doubled haploid population in 2012 revealed that yield capacity was influenced by climate change. Analysis of yield and yield components indicated that five average traits are high in “Cheongcheong”. Frequency distribution tables indicated that panicles per plant (PPP), spike lets per panicle (SPP), and 1000-grain weight (TGW) were normally distributed. The strongest relationship was identified between SPP and seed set percentage (SSP) among phenotypic correlations related to yield and yield components found on chromosomes 2, 3, 6, 8 in 2012. SPP and SSP was a very relevant requisite about quantity. Analysis of QTL about quantity was total 9. In the present study, a doubled haploid population was used to analyze the epistatic effects on yield and yield components in rice. Although other epistatic QTLs were not included in any of the main-effect QTLs, they significantly influenced the traits. These results indicated that epistatic interaction plays an important role in controlling the expression of complex traits. Thus, the utilization of marker-assisted selection in rice breeding programs should take epistatic effects into consideration. Hence, the QTLs responsible for major effects are more suitable for marker-assisted selection programs to improve yield and related traits across different environments.

Physical Land Suitability Assessment for the Large Cardamom Amomum subulatum Roxb.Cultivation in Hills of Kathmandu Valley

Nepal is one of the top three exporters of larger cardamom(Amomum subulatum Roxb.) in the world market contributing largely to the Nepalese economy.Sub-Himalayan range of hilly area of eastern Nepal is popular for large cardamom cultivation.Being similar phytogeographical and ecological setting,cultivation has begun in hills of Kathmandu Valley however land suitability needs to be evaluated with reference to specific need of the crop.Kathmandu is a valley with alluvial bottom and altitudinal range between 1200 and 2730m above sea level having cool to warm temperate climatic range.Varieties of aspects and slope gradient have potentiality for the large cardamom cultivation.Aim of the study was set to categorize available land area in the range of suitability for large cardamon cultivation on the basis of physical characteristics of the land and ecological need of crop.Land evaluation methodology has been designed along with site specific amendment in FAO framework(1976).Land use map in scale of 1:25 000 was used in geographic information system environment.Suitability was done through map overlaying methods.Aim of the study was set to categorize available land area in the range of suitability categories for large cardamom cultivation based on physical characteristics of the land matching with ecological need of crop.Analysis of data shows that altitudinal range at uplands of Kathmandu Valley and annual average rainfall and temperature are found to be within suitability range for Amomum subulatum cultivation.Sandy loam soil,slightly acidic in nature with gentle sloping land of about 5-8° provides highly suitable condition.Result showed that more than one-third of total land area above 1800 m of altitude is suitable.Selectively,of the total area,5% are north facing slope,13% gentle slopes are highly suitable.16% lands with north east orientation are moderately suitable.Most of the land areas which are marginaly suitabile for vegetable and cereal crops are highly suitable for large cardamom.Hills of northern boundary hills found to be suitable due to more rainfall distribution pattern compared to southern boundary hills.Therefore,land evaluation also identifies limitations and input requirements for sustainable production.

Performance and genetic diversity of 23 provenances of northern red oak(Quercus rubra L.)after 25 years of growth in South Korea

Growth traits and genetic diversity of 23 provenances of Quercus rubra introduced from North America were analyzed in a provenance trial established with a randomized block design in Hwaseong,Gyeonggi,South Korea in 1993.Growth variables and survival at age 25 were compared with results from early stages.Height,DBH,volume and stem straightness of Q.rubra was better than those of the domestic oak(Quercus accutissima).Growth of the Dunham Island provenance from New York was the best among the 23 provenances that of the Eagle River provenance from Wisconsin was poorest.Survival rate at age25 was on average 52%.The longitude of seed origin and growth of provenance were consistently significantly negatively correlated at all ages.Growth of coastal provenances was superior to that of the inland provenances,which were separated by the Appalachian Mountains.Genetic diversity and genetic distance among the provenances were evaluated using micro satellite markers.The allelic frequencies showed high polymorphism in 10 microsatellite loci,and 292 alleles were found.Of 10 loci,two were commonly found in the 23 provenances.The mean allelic diversity and heterozygosity observed among the provenances were similar to those from the native populations of Q.rubra in North America.Nei’s genetic distance among the 23 was estimated and showed that a clear trend between geographic and genetic distances,indicating that some provenances have high genetic diversity with superior growth performance.

SPAD Value Difference between Blueberry Cultivar ‘STAR’ by Planted Ground and Pot

In the smart farm,we can control every detail for production.Collecting every factor that affects the crop’s final yield is necessary to optimize its efficiency.The SPAD values were observed in the‘Star’cultivar blueberry(Vaccinium darrowii)three times a day and at three different plant heights.The pattern of SPAD value change was different by the planting position.Ground planted blueberry(V.darrowii)represented a stable SPAD value during the day and at the different heights.However,the SPAD value was increased by time in pot-planted blueberry(V.darrowii).Also,the SPAD value of pot-planted blueberry was lower than ground planted blueberry(V.darrowii).Even when plants were of the same cultivar and age,planting conditions affected the changing pattern of SPAD in a day.Each planting condition had merit.Therefore,proper management is needed to compensate SPAD value in pot-planted blueberry(V.darrowii).This study suggests that environmental conditions like planting factors affect the final products.Therefore,to maximize the efficiency at the smart farm,the factors that could affect the final yield should be investigated and accumulated.

Hungaro Durum Rye—Breeding, Genome Composition and Amino Acid Content of the First Triticale Cultivar for Human Consumption

Hungaro triticale cultivar was bred for human consumption and animal fodder in Kisvárda, Hungary. The breeding method applied for the recombinant secondary hexaploid triticale proved to be effective since the favourable traits of wheat, durum wheat and rye were successfully combined in the genome of the new cultivar. The first aim was to characterize the genome composition. Multicolour genomic in situ hybridization (mcGISH) was used for the genome compositional analysis. According to the results, the cultivar contains the wheat AB genome (AABB = 28 chromosomes) and the whole rye (R) genome (RR = 14 chromosomes). The presence of D genome, however, could not be detected within the detection limit of the GISH method. Hungaro is the very first triticale in Hungary that has been used for human consumption (milling industry, baking industry, pasta production). In this study, amino acid content of flours was measured. Amino acid investigations on Hungaro durum rye’s flour showed that the quantity of essential amino acids, especially of methionine and cysteine, are higher in Hungaro durum rye than in the also investigated Ryefood rye cultivar and the GK ?thalom wheat cultivar. The genes inherited from the wheat species ensure high yield and great baking and dough making qualities. Therefore, its flour is suitable in itself for pastry and dough production (without mixing it with other flours). Its characteristics inherited from rye guarantee excellent abiotic and biotic resistance.

Improvement of Rice Production under Drought Conditions in West Africa:Application of QTLs in Breeding for Drought Resistance

Rice plays a paramount role in food and nutrition security in many West African countries.Despite the doubling of production during the last decade,rice consumption has grown faster,creating a deficit between the demand and supply.Although the West African sub-region remains the main rice-producing centre on the continent,production is severely hampered by biotic and abiotic stresses.Drought is one of the factors that most severely reduce grain yields of rice.Systems of production need to be established in order to mitigate yield loss as a result of drought.This review discusses the effects of drought on rice production in West Africa and its mitigation with an emphasis on the improvement of tolerance to drought stress.Yield stability can be achieved by developing drought-tolerant varieties through several processes encompassing profiling of known QTLs and identification of new ones,marker-assisted selection,genomic selection,and extensive multi-locational yield trials.We suggest a comprehensive strategy for breeding drought-tolerant rice varieties in West Africa.

Characterization of Newly Developed Wheat/Barley Introgression Lines in Respect of Aluminium Tolerance

The Al tolerance of newly developed wheat/barley disomic addition, substitution and translocation lines carry chromosomes of three different barley cultivars was evaluated by comparing the root growth in solution containing 75 μM AlCl3 at pH 4.0 to that of known Al-tolerant and sensitive wheat genotypes. The wheat Asakaze komugi, barley Manas cultivars and their hybrid derivatives were found to have high levels of Al tolerance. The wheat line Mv9kr1, barley cultivar Igri and progenies of the hybrids were sensitive to Al. In most cases, the Al tolerance of the wheat/barley introgression lines derived from Al-sensitive wheat Mv9kr1 and barley Betzes with moderate Al tolerance was similar to that of the wheat parents, but the 2DS.2DL-1HS translocation line of Mv9kr1/Betzes exhibited more intensive root growth, while accumulating less Al than the parental lines. This indicates that either the lack of the distal part of chromosome 2DL or the presence of the distal part of 1HS improved the Al tolerance level.

Association Analysis of the Amino Acid Contents in Rice

The main objective of the present study was to identify simple sequence repeat （SSR） markers associated with the amino acid content of rice （Oryza sativa L.）. SSR markers were selected by prescreening for the relationship to amino acid content. Eighty-four rice landrace accessions from Korea were evaluated for 16 kinds of amino acids in brown rice and ganotyped with 25 SSR markers. Analysis of population structure revealed four subgroups in the population. Linkage disequilibrium （LD） patterns and distributions are of fundamental importance for genome-wide mapping associations. The mean r^2 value for all intrachromosomal loci pairs was 0.033. LD between linked markers decreased with distance. Marker-trait associations were investigated using the unified mixed-model approach, considering both population structure （Q） and kinship （K）. A total of 42 marker-trait associations with amino acids （P 〈 0.05） were identified using 15 different SSR markers covering three chromosomes and explaining more than 40% of the total variation. These results suggest that association analysis in rice is a viable alternative to quantitative trait loci mapping and should help rice breeders develop strategies for improving rice quality.

Sequence Information on Simple Sequence Repeats and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms through Transcriptome Analysis of Mungbean

Mungbean （Vigna radiata （L.） Wilczek） is a unique species in its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, with early maturity, and relatively good drought resistance. We used 454 sequencing technology for transcriptome sequencing. A total of 150 159 and 142 993 reads produced 5 254 and 6 374 large contigs （〉_500 bp） with an average length of 833 and 853 for Sunhwa and Jangan, respectively. Functional annotation to known sequences yielded 41.34% and 41.74% unigenes for Jangan and Sunhwa. A higher number of simple sequence repeat （SSR） motifs was identified in Jangan （1 630） compared with that of Sunhwa （1 334）. A similar SSR distribution pattern was observed in both varieties. A total of 8 249 single nucleotide polymorphisms （SNPs） and indels with 2 098 high-confidence candidates were identified in the two mungbean varieties. The average distance between individual SNPs was -860 bp. Our report demonstrates the utility of transcriptomic data for implementing a functional annotation and development of genetic markers. We also provide large resource sequence data for mungbean improvement programs.

Development of a Core Set from a Large Rice Collection using a Modified Heuristic Algorithm to Retain Maximum Diversity

A new heuristic approach was undertaken for the establishment of a core set for the diversity research of rice. As a result, 107 entries were selected from the 10 368 characterized accessions. The core set derived using this new approach provided a good representation of the characterized accessions present in the entire collection. No significant differences for the mean, range, standard deviation and coefficient of variation of each trait were observed between the core and existing collections. We also compared the diversity of core sets established using this Heuristic Core Collection （HCC） approach with those of core sets established using the conventional clustering methods. This modified heuristic algorithm can also be used to select genotype data with allelic richness and reduced redundancy, and to facilitate management and use of large collections of plant genetic resources in a more efficient way.

Integrating artificial intelligence and high-throughput phenotyping for crop improvement

Crop improvement is crucial for addressing the global challenges of food security and sustainable agriculture.Recent advancements in high-throughput phenotyping(HTP)technologies and artificial intelligence(AI)have revolutionized the field,enabling rapid and accurate assessment of crop traits on a large scale.The integration of AI and machine learning algorithms with HTP data has unlocked new opportunities for crop improvement.AI algorithms can analyze and interpret large datasets,and extract meaningful patterns and correlations between phenotypic traits and genetic factors.These technologies have the potential to revolutionize plant breeding programs by providing breeders with efficient and accurate tools for trait selection,thereby reducing the time and cost required for variety development.However,further research and collaboration are needed to overcome the existing challenges and fully unlock the power of HTP and AI in crop improvement.By leveraging AI algorithms,researchers can efficiently analyze phenotypic data,uncover complex patterns,and establish predictive models that enable precise trait selection and crop breeding.The aim of this review is to explore the transformative potential of integrating HTP and AI in crop improvement.This review will encompass an in-depth analysis of recent advances and applications,highlighting the numerous benefits and challenges associated with HTP and AI.

9,10-KODA,an α-ketol produced by the tonoplastlocalized 9-lipoxygenase ZmLOX5,plays a signaling role in maize defense against insect herbivory

13-Lipoxygenases(LOXs)initiate the synthesis of jasmonic acid(JA),the best-understood oxylipin hormone in herbivory defense.However,the roles of 9-LOX-derived oxylipins in insect resistance remain unclear.Here,we report a novel anti-herbivory mechanism mediated by a tonoplast-localized 9-LOX,ZmLOX5,and its linolenic acid-derived product,9-hydroxy-10-oxo-12(Z),15(Z)-octadecadienoic acid(9,10-KODA).Transposon-insertional disruption of ZmLOX5 resulted in the loss of resistance to insect herbivory.lox5 knockout mutants displayed greatly reduced wound-induced accumulation of multiple oxylipins and defense metabolites,including benzoxazinoids,abscisic acid(ABA),and JA-isoleucine(JA-Ile).However,exogenous JA-Ile failed to rescue insect defense in lox5 mutants,while applications of 1 mM 9,10-KODA or the JA precursor,12-oxo-phytodienoic acid(12-OPDA),restored wild-type resistance levels.Metabolite profiling revealed that exogenous 9,10-KODA primed the plants for increased production of ABA and 12-OPDA,but not JA-Ile.While none of the 9-oxylipins were able to rescue JA-Ile induction,the lox5 mutant accumulated lower wound-induced levels of Ca^(2+),suggesting this as a potential explanation for lower wound-induced JA.Seedlings pretreated with 9,10-KODA exhibited rapid or more robust woundinduced defense gene expression.In addition,an artificial diet supplemented with 9,10-KODA arrested fall armyworm larvae growth.Finally,analysis of single and double lox5 and lox10 mutants showed that ZmLOX5 also contributed to insect defense by modulating ZmLOX10-mediated green leaf volatile signaling.Collectively,our study uncovered a previously unknown anti-herbivore defense and hormonelike signaling activity for a major 9-oxylipin α-ketol.