Biomarkers and subtypes of deranged lipid metabolism in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD)is a heterogeneous and complex disease that is imprecisely diagnosed by liver biopsy.NAFLD covers a spectrum that ranges from simple steatosis,nonalcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH)with varying degrees of fibrosis,to cirrhosis,which is a major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma.Lifestyle and eating habit changes during the last century have made NAFLD the most common liver disease linked to obesity,type 2 diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia,with a global prevalence of 25%.NAFLD arises when the uptake of fatty acids(FA)and triglycerides(TG)from circulation and de novo lipogenesis saturate the rate of FAβ-oxidation and verylow density lipoprotein(VLDL)-TG export.Deranged lipid metabolism is also associated with NAFLD progression from steatosis to NASH,and therefore,alterations in liver and serum lipidomic signatures are good indicators of the disease’s development and progression.This review focuses on the importance of the classification of NAFLD patients into different subtypes,corresponding to the main alteration(s)in the major pathways that regulate FA homeostasis leading,in each case,to the initiation and progression of NASH.This concept also supports the targeted intervention as a key approach to maximize therapeutic efficacy and opens the door to the development of precise NASH treatments.

A Study on the Safety of Liver Biopsy Inpatients with Von Willebrand’s Disease

Objectives: Liver biopsy remains the gold standard for diagnosis of chronic liver diseases. Outpatient percutaneous biopsy is generally safe with a mortality rate of 0.17% and hospitalization rate for bleeding of 3%. Von Willebrand disease (vWD) syndrome is the most common inherited hematological disorder with a prevalence of 1% - 3% globally. We sought to study whether vWD increases the risk of bleeding for liver biopsies. Methods: All patients (n = 120) who underwent outpatient percutaneous liver biopsies from 1997 to 2007 were analyzed. Demographics, PT/INR, platelet count, vW antigen and ristocetin induced platelet aggregation were studied. Results: No vWD patients had major bleeding that required transfusion, hospitalization or surgery but 9 (75%) had minor local bleeding and all had ecchymosis, which resolved spontaneously within 24 hours. Conclusions: Patients with vW factor deficiency can undergo percutaneous liver biopsy without major bleeding. Minor bleeding may occur at a slightly higher rate. vWD is not a contraindication to percutaneous liver biopsy.

Inflammatory bowel disease and cancer: The role of inflammation, immunosuppression, and cancer treatment

In patients with inflammatory bowel disease(IBD), chronic inflammation is a major risk factor for the development of gastrointestinal malignancies. The pathogenesis of colitis-associated cancer is distinct from sporadic colorectal carcinoma and the critical molecular mechanisms underlying this process have yet to be elucidated. Patients with IBD have also been shown to be at increased risk of developing extra-intestinal malignancies. Medical therapies that diminish the mucosal inflammatory response represent the foundation of treatment in IBD, and recent evidence supports their introduction earlier in the disease course. However, therapies that alter the immune system, often used for long durations, may also promote carcinogenesis. As the population of patients with IBD grows older, with longer duration of chronic inflammation and longer exposure to immunosuppression, there is an increasing risk of cancer development. Many of these patients will require cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, radiation, hormonal therapy, and surgery. Many patients will require further treatment for their IBD. This review seeks to explore the characteristics and risks of cancer in patients with IBD, and to evaluate the limited data on patients with IBD and cancer, including management of IBD after a diagnosis of cancer, the effects of cancer treatment on IBD, and the effect of IBD and medications for IBD on cancer outcomes.

Overview and comparison of guidelines for management of pancreatic cystic neoplasms

Pancreatic cysts are identified at an increasing frequency.Although mucinous cystic neoplasms represent a pre-malignant condition,the majority of these lesions do not progress to cancer.Over the last 10 years several societies have established guidelines for the diagnosis,initial evaluation and surveillance of these lesions.Here we provide an overview of five commonly used guidelines:2015 American Gastroenterological Association,2017 International Association of Pancreatology,American College of Gastroenterology 2018,European Study Group and American College of Radiology.We describe the similarities and differences between the methods used to formulate these guidelines,the population they target and their approaches towards initial evaluation and surveillance of cystic lesions.

Thiopurines and inflammatory bowel disease: Current evidence and a historical perspective

The use of thiopurines in inflammatory bowel disease(IBD) has been examined in numerous prospective, controlled trials, with a majority demonstrating a clinical benefit. We conducted this review to describe the historical and current evidence in the use of thiopurines in IBD. A systematic search was performed on MEDLINE between 1965 and 2016 to identify studies on thiopurines in IBD. The most robust evidence for thiopurines in IBD includes induction of remission in combination with anti-tumor necrosis factor(antiTNF) agents, and maintenance of remission and postoperative maintenance in Crohn's disease. Less evidence exists for thiopurine monotherapy in induction of remission, maintenance of ulcerative colitis, chemoprevention of colorectal cancer, and in preventing immunogenicity to anti-TNF. Evidence was often limited by trial design. Overall, thiopurines have demonstrated efficacy in a broad range of presentations of IBD. With more efficacious novel therapeutic agents, the positioning of thiopurines in the management of IBD will change and future studies will analyze the benefit of thiopurines alone and in conjunction with these new medications.

Novel anti-diabetic agents in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a mini-review

BACKGROUND:Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD)encompasses a spectrum that ranges from simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH)and to cirrhosis.The recommended treatment for this disease includes measures that target obesity and insulin resistance.The present review summarizes the role of newer anti-diabetic agents in treatment of NAFLD.DATA SOURCES:PubMed,MEDLINE and Ovid databases were searched to identify human studies between January 1990and January 2013 using specified key words.Original studies that enrolled patients with a diagnosis of NAFLD or NASH and involved use of newer classes of anti-diabetic agents for a duration of at least 3 months were included.RESULTS:Out of the screened articles,four met eligibility criteria and were included in our review.The classes of newer anti-diabetic medications described were dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues.CONCLUSIONS:Liraglutide and Exenatide showed improvement in transaminases as well as histology in patients with NASH.Sitagliptin showed improvement in transaminases but limited studies are there to access its effect on histology.Further studies are needed to support use of newer anti-diabetic medications in patients with NAFLD.

Arachidyl amido cholanoic acid improves liver glucose and lipid homeostasis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis via AMPK and mTOR regulation

BACKGROUND Arachidyl amido cholanoic acid(Aramchol)is a potent downregulator of hepatic stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1(SCD1)protein expression that reduces liver triglycerides and fibrosis in animal models of steatohepatitis.In a phase IIb clinical trial in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH),52 wk of treatment with Aramchol reduced blood levels of glycated hemoglobin A1c,an indicator of glycemic control.AIM To assess lipid and glucose metabolism in mouse hepatocytes and in a NASH mouse model[induced with a 0.1%methionine and choline deficient diet(0.1MCD)]after treatment with Aramchol.METHODS Isolated primary mouse hepatocytes were incubated with 20μmol/L Aramchol or vehicle for 48 h.Subsequently,analyses were performed including Western blot,proteomics by mass spectrometry,and fluxomic analysis with 13C-uniformly labeled glucose.For the in vivo part of the study,male C57BL/6J mice were randomly fed a control or 0.1MCD for 4 wk and received 1 or 5 mg/kg/d Aramchol or vehicle by intragastric gavage for the last 2 wk.Liver metabolomics were assessed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-time of flight-MS for the determination of glucose metabolism-related metabolites.RESULTS Combination of proteomics and Western blot analyses showed increased AMPK activity while the activity of nutrient sensor mTORC1 was decreased by Aramchol in hepatocytes.This translated into changes in the content of their downstream targets including proteins involved in fatty acid(FA)synthesis and oxidation[PACCα/β(S79),SCD1,CPT1A/B,HADHA,and HADHB],oxidative phosphorylation(NDUFA9,NDUFB11,NDUFS1,NDUFV1,ETFDH,and UQCRC2),tricarboxylic acid(TCA)cycle(MDH2,SUCLA2,and SUCLG2),and ribosome(P-p70S6K[T389]and P-S6[S235/S236]).Flux experiments with 13Cuniformely labeled glucose showed that TCA cycle cataplerosis was reduced by Aramchol in hepatocytes,as indicated by the increase in the number of rounds that malate remained in the TCA cycle.Finally,liver metabolomic analysis showed that glucose homeostasis was improved by Aramchol in 0.1MCD fed mice in a dose-dependent manner,showing normalization of glucose,G6P,F6P,UDP-glucose,and Rbl5P/Xyl5P.CONCLUSION Aramchol exerts its effect on glucose and lipid metabolism in NASH through activation of AMPK and inhibition of mTORC1,which in turn activate FAβ-oxidation and oxidative phosphorylation.

Interplay between nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and inflammatory mediators in COVID-19-related liver injury

Coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is a global pandemic and poses a major threat to human health worldwide.In addition to respiratory symptoms,COVID-19 is usually accompanied by systemic inflammation and liver damage in moderate and severe cases.Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2(NRF2)is a transcription factor that regulates the expression of antioxidant proteins,participating in COVID-19-mediated inflammation and liver injury.Here,we show the novel reciprocal regulation between NRF2 and inflammatory mediators associated with COVID-19-related liver injury.Additionally,we describe some mechanisms and treatment strategies.

Clinical considerations in the management of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis cirrhosis pre- and post-transplant: A multi-system challenge

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH)is the most common chronic liver disease worldwide,and the fastest growing indication for liver transplantation in the United States.NASH is now the leading etiology for liver transplantation in women,the second leading indication for men,and the most common cause amongst recipients aged 65 years and older.Patients with end-stage liver disease related to NASH represent a unique and challenging patient population due the high incidence of associated comorbid diseases,including obesity,type 2 diabetes(T2D),and hypertension.These challenges manifest in the pre-liver transplantation period with increased waitlist times and waitlist mortality.Furthermore,these patients carry considerable risk of morbidity and mortality both before after liver transplantation,with high rates of T2D,cardiovascular disease,chronic kidney disease,poor nutrition,and disease recurrence.Successful transplantation for these patients requires identification and management of their comorbidities in the face of liver failure.Multidisciplinary evaluations include a thorough pre-transplant workup with a complete cardiac evaluation,control of diabetes,nutritional support,and even,potentially,consultation with a bariatric surgeon.This article provides a comprehensive review of the conditions and challenges facing patients with NASH cirrhosis undergoing liver transplantation and provides recommendations for evaluation and management to optimize them before liver transplantation to produce successful outcomes.

Endoscopic applications of cryospray ablation therapy-from Barrett's esophagus and beyond

In the last decade, the treatment of dysplastic Barrett’s esophagus has evolved into primarily endoscopic therapy. Many techniques have become well-established to destroy or remove the mucosal lining of Barrett’s esophagus. One of the newest therapies, cryospray ablation, has become a modality to treat both dysplastic Barrett’s esophagus as well as esophageal carcinoma. In endoscopic applications, the cryogen used is either liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide which causes tissue destruction through rapid freeze-thaw cycles. Unlike other endoscopic ablation techniques, its unique mechanism of action and depth of tissue injury allow cryoablation to be used effectively in flat or nodular disease. It can be combined with other modalities such as endoscopic mucosal resection or radiofrequency ablation. Its esophageal applications stem well-beyond Barrett’s into ablation of early carcinoma, palliative debulking of advanced carcinoma and reduction of tumor ingrowth into stents placed for dysphagia. Although there are fewer reported studies of endoscopic cryoablation in the literature compared to other endoscopic ablation methods, emerging research continues to demonstrate its efficacy as a durable ablation technology with a variety of applications. The aim of this review is to examine the pathophysiology of endoscopic cryospray ablation, describe its outcomes in Barrett’s with dysplasia and esophageal carcinoma, and examine its role in other gastrointestinal applications such as hemostasis in the stomach and rectum.

High burden of hepatocellular carcinoma and viral hepatitis in Southern and Central Vietnam:Experience of a large tertiary referral center,2010 to 2016

AIM To examine the largest tertiary referral center in southern and central Vietnam from 2010 to 2016, evaluating epidemiological trends of hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) and viral hepatitis B-C in this resource-limited setting.METHODS We extracted data of patients receiving care from Cho Ray Hospital(Ho Chi Minh City), the largest oncology referral center in southern and central Vietnam, from 2010 to 2016. We collected information on patient age, gender, geographic distribution, and disease characteristics including disease stage, tumor biomarker levels [serum alpha-fetoprotein(AFP), AFP-L3 isoform percentage, and prothrombin induced by induced by vitamin K absence-Ⅱ], and serological testing for hepatitis B virus(HBV) and hepatitis C virus(HCV) infections.RESULTS Data from 24091 HCC patients were extracted, with sample demographics comprising mostly male(81.8%) and older age(however with 8.5% younger than 40 years old). This patient sample included a geographic catchment population of 56 million people(60% of the country's total population of 92.7 million), derived from 38 provinces and municipalities in Vietnam. Chronic HBV infection was found in 62.3% of cases, and chronic HCV infection in 26.0%. HBV and HCV co-infection was seen in 2.7%. Cirrhosis was found in an estimated 30% to 40% of cases. Nine percent of patients were not found to have chronic viral hepatitis. Twenty three point two percent of the patients had a normal AFP level. A total of 2199 patients were tested with AFP-L3 and PIVKA Ⅱ over two years, with 57.7% having elevated AFP-L3%, and 88.5% with elevated PIVKA Ⅱ levels. Over this 7-year period, the incidence of HCC increased, with a large proportion of cases(overall 40.8%) presenting initially an advanced stage, not amendable to surgical or locoregional therapy.CONCLUSION HCC contributes significant health care burden in southern and central Vietnam, with increasing case volume over this seven-year period. Viral hepatitis likely explains this high HCC prevalence.

Primary liver cancer spectrum:current knowledge and the next steps

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC)and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma(iCCA)constitute the main subtypes of primary liver cancers(PLCs)as a major cause of cancer-related mortality and incidence.They emerge from varying quantities and levels of differentiation among major liver cells,comprising hepatocytes,mucin-or non-mucin-producing cholangiocytes,and hepatic progenitor cells(HPCs)with the capability to differentiate into either hepatocytes or cholangiocytes.

Foregut bypass vs.restrictive bariatric procedures for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease:a meta-analysis of 3,355 individuals

Background:Bariatric surgery represents an important treatment option for severely obese patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD).However,there remains inadequate data regarding the effects of different bariatric procedures on various NAFLD parameters,especially for histological outcomes.Thus,this meta-analysis aimed to compare the effects of restrictive bariatric procedures and foregut bypass on the metabolic,biochemical,and histological parameters for patients with NAFLD.Methods:Medline and Embase were searched for articles relating to bariatric procedures and NAFLD.Pairwise meta-analysis was conducted to compare efficacy of bariatric procedures pre-vs.post-procedure with subgroup analysis to further compare restrictive against foregut bypass procedures.Results:Thirty-one articles involving 3,355 patients who underwent restrictive bariatric procedures(n=1,460)and foregut bypass(n=1,895)were included.Both foregut bypass(P<0.01)and restrictive procedures(P=0.03)significantly increased odds of fibrosis resolution.Compared to restrictive procedures,foregut bypass resulted in a borderline non-significant decrease in fibrosis score(P=0.06)and significantly lower steatosis score(P<0.001).For metabolic parameters,foregut bypass significantly lowered body mass index(P=0.003)and low-density lipoprotein(P=0.008)compared to restrictive procedures.No significant differences were observed between both procedures for aspartate aminotransferase(P=0.17)and alkaline phosphatase(P=0.61).However,foregut bypass resulted in significantly lower gamma-glutamyl transferase than restrictive procedures(P=0.01)while restrictive procedures resulted in significantly lower alanine transaminase than foregut bypass(P=0.02).Conclusions:The significant histological and metabolic advantages and comparable improvements in biochemical outcomes support the choice of foregut bypass over restrictive bariatric procedures in NAFLD management.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Risk factors, screening, and early detection

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States, with over 38000 deaths in 2013. The opportunity to detect pancreatic cancer while it is still curable is dependent on our ability to identify and screen high-risk populations before their symptoms arise. Risk factors for developing pancreatic cancer include multiple genetic syndromes as well as modifiable risk factors. Genetic conditions include hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome, Lynch Syndrome, familial adenomatous polyposis, Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome, familial atypical multiple mole melanoma syndrome, hereditary pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, and ataxia-telangiectasia; having a genetic predisposition can raise the risk of developing pancreatic cancer up to 132-fold over the general population. Modifiable risk factors, which include tobacco exposure, alcohol use, chronic pancreatitis, diet, obesity, diabetes mellitus, as well as certain abdominal surgeries and infections, have also been shown to increase the risk of pancreatic cancer development. Several largevolume centers have initiated such screening protocols, and consensus-based guidelines for screening high-riskgroups have recently been published. The focus of this review will be both the genetic and modifiable risk factors implicated in pancreatic cancer, as well as a review of screening strategies and their diagnostic yields.

Fatty liver in hepatitis C patients post-sustained virological response with direct-acting antivirals

AIM To determine steatosis and fibrosis prevalence in hepatitis C patients after a sustained virological response achieved with direct-acting antivirals.METHODS Transient elastography with controlled attenuation parameter(CAP) was used to assess hepatic steatosis post-sustained virological response(SVR);the CAP technology was not available in the United States at study initiation.Liver stiffness/fibrosis was measured before and 47 wk after treatment completion.Patients with genotype 3 and patients with cirrhosis were excluded.RESULTS One hundred and one patients were included in the study.Post-SVR there were decreases from baseline in alanine aminotransferase(ALT)(63.1 to 17.8 U/L),aspartate aminotransferase(51.8 to 21.5 U/L) and fibrosis score(7.4 to 6.1 k Pa)(P < 0.05).Post-SVR,48 patients(47.5%) had steatosis on CAP;of these,6.25% had advanced fibrosis.Patients with steatosis had higher body mass index(29.0 vs 26.1 kg/m2),glucose(107.8 vs 96.6 mg/d L),ALT(20.4 vs 15.3 mg/d L),CAP score(296.3 vs 212.4 d B/m) and fibrosis score(7.0 vs 5.3 k Pa);P < 0.05.Interestingly,compared to baseline,both patients with and without steatosis had change in fibrosis score post-SVR(7.7 k Pa vs 7.0 k Pa and 7.0 k Pa vs 5.3 k Pa);alternatively,(P < 0.05) and therefore patients with steatosis continued to have clinically significant stiffness(≥ 7 k Pa).CONCLUSION Fatty liver is very common in hepatitis C virus(HCV) patients post-SVR.These patients continue to have elevated mean fibrosis score(≥ 7 k Pa) compared to those without fatty liver;some have advanced fibrosis.Long term follow up is needed to assess steatosis and fibrosis in HCV patients post-SVR.

Methionine adenosyltransferases in liver cancer

Methionine adenosyltransferases(MATs)are essential enzymes for life as they produce S-adenosylmethionine(SAMe),the biological methyl donor required for a plethora of reactions within the cell.Mammalian systems express two genes,MAT1A and MAT2A,which encode for MATα1 and MATα2,the catalytic subunits of the MAT isoenzymes,respectively.A third gene MAT2B,encodes a regulatory subunit known as MATβwhich controls the activity of MATα2.MAT1A,which is mainly expressed in hepatocytes,maintains the differentiated state of these cells,whilst MAT2A and MAT2B are expressed in extrahepatic tissues as well as non-parenchymal cells of the liver(e.g.,hepatic stellate and Kupffer cells).The biosynthesis of SAMe is impaired in patients with chronic liver disease and liver cancer due to decreased expression and inactivation of MATα1.A switch from MAT1A to MAT2A/MAT2B occurs in multiple liver diseases and during liver growth and dedifferentiation,but this change in the expression pattern of MATs results in reduced hepatic SAMe level.Decades of study have utilized the Mat1a-knockout(KO)mouse that spontaneously develops non-alcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH)and hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC)to elucidate a variety of mechanisms by which MAT proteins dysregulation contributes to liver carcinogenesis.An increasing volume of work indicates that MATs have SAMe-independent functions,distinct interactomes and multiple subcellular localizations.Here we aim to provide an overview of MAT biology including genes,isoenzymes and their regulation to provide the context for understanding consequences of their dysregulation.We will highlight recent breakthroughs in the field and underscore the importance of MAT’s in liver tumorigenesis as well as their potential as targets for cancer therapy.

Diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers in pancreaticobiliary malignancy

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma(PDAC) and cholangiocarcinoma(CCA) are two malignancies that carry significant morbidity and mortality. The poor prognoses of these cancers are strongly related to lack of effective screening modalities as well as few therapeutic options. In this review, we highlight novel biomarkers that have the potential to be used as diagnostic, prognostic and predictive markers. The focus of this review is biomarkers that can be evaluated on endoscopically-obtained biopsies or brush specimens in the pre-operative setting. We also provide an overview of novel serum based markers in the early diagnosis of both PDAC and CCA. In pancreatic cancer, the emphasis is placed on prognostic and theranostic markers, whereas in CCA the utility of molecular markers in diagnosis and prognosis are highlighted.

Microbial manipulation as primary therapy for Crohn's disease

While antimicrobials are clinically effective in preventing post-operative recurrence,the role for antibiotics in primary therapy for Crohn's disease(CD) remains unclear.The recent multicenter phase 2 trial by Prantera et al received wide attention because it demonstrated an increase in the week 12 remission rate in patients with moderately active CD treated with rifaximin and renewed interest in microbial manipulation as primary therapy for CD.In this commentary,we discuss aspects of durability,immune cell polarization,and safety of microbial manipulation as primary therapy for CD.

Early treatment efficacy of S-adenosylmethionine in patients with intrahepatic cholestasis: A systematic review

BACKGROUND S-adenosylmethionine(AdoMet)is a metabolically pleiotropic molecule used to treat intrahepatic cholestasis(IHC)and chronic liver diseases.While the efficacy of AdoMet has been demonstrated previously,it has not been systematically investigated within the early weeks of treatment.AIM To systematically review the early treatment efficacy of AdoMet in adult patients with IHC.METHODS Studies reporting the efficacy of intravenous,intramuscular,or oral forms of AdoMet within 8 wk of treatment initiation were considered;three randomized and six non-randomized studies were eligible for inclusion(PROSPERO registration number CRD42018090936).Of the three randomized studies,two were double-blind and placebo-controlled,and one was comparator-controlled with unclear blinding and a relatively high risk of bias.Mean serum levels of alanine aminotransferase(ALT),aspartate aminotransferase(AST),alkaline phosphatase(ALP),and gamma-glutamyl transferase(γGT)following AdoMet treatment vs placebo,comparator,or baseline were summarized to determine differences in liver enzymes.Changes in patient-reported clinical symptoms of cholestasis were also summarized.RESULTS Both placebo-controlled randomized studies reported significant reductions in serum ALT levels with AdoMet vs placebo within 2 wk.One of these also reported significant ALP reductions,and the other reported significant AST andγGT reductions within 2 wk.The comparator-controlled randomized study,which had a number of notable limitations,reported significant reductions in serum ALT and AST levels with AdoMet vs potassium magnesium aspartate within 4 wk,but not within2 wk.All of the non-randomized studies(4/4)that investigated ALT,AST,ALP and/orγGT reported significant reductions in at least two of these parameters within 2 wk.Of the five studies that evaluated fatigue,reductions were observed within 2 wk in one randomized and two nonrandomized studies.The remaining two non-randomized studies reported improvements in fatigue within 6 and 8 wk.Of the four studies reporting symptoms of depression,two non-randomized studies observed improvements within 2 wk and the other two observed improvements within 17 d and 8 wk.CONCLUSION Data from both randomized and non-randomized studies suggest that AdoMet improves some biochemical liver parameters and symptoms of cholestasis within 2 wk,with further improvements observed in some studies after 4 and 8 wk of treatment.

Two-stage liver transplant for ruptured hepatic adenoma:A case report

BACKGROUND Only one case of liver transplantation for hepatic adenoma has previously been reported for patients with rupture and uncontrolled hemorrhage.We present the case of a massive ruptured hepatic adenoma with persistent hemorrhagic shock and toxic liver syndrome which resulted in a two-stage liver transplantation.This is the first case of a two-stage liver transplantation performed for a ruptured hepatic adenoma.CASE SUMMARY A 23 years old African American female with a history of pre-diabetes and oral contraceptive presented to an outside facility complaining of right-sided chest pain and emesis for one day.She was found to be in hemorrhagic shock due to a massive ruptured hepatic hepatic adenoma.She underwent repeated embolizations with interventional radiology with ongoing hemorrhage and the development of renal failure,hepatic failure,and hemodynamic instability,known as toxic liver syndrome.In the setting of uncontrolled hemorrhage and toxic liver syndrome,a hepatectomy with porto-caval anastomosis was performed with liver transplantation 15 h later.She tolerated the anhepatic stage well,and has done well over one year later.CONCLUSION When toxic liver syndrome is recognized,liver transplantation with or withouthepatectomy should be considered before the patient becomes unstable.