Current re-vegetation patterns and restoration issues in degraded geological phosphorus-rich mountain areas:A synthetic analysis of Central Yunnan, SW China

China has the largest area of inland geological phosphorus-rich(GPR) mountains in the world, where vegetation restoration is key to safeguarding the environment. We reviewed the published literature and collected new data in order to analyze re-vegetation patterns and the status of plant communities in central Yunnan. The aim of our analysis was to suggest future improvements to restoration strategies in GPR mountain regions. Our results showed that spontaneous recovery was the most widespread type of restoration. N-fixing species such as Coriaria nepalensis and Alnus nepalensis play a vital role in succession. In the past, monoculture tree plantation was the primary method used in afforestation activities in central Yunnan; in recent years however, several different methods of restoration have been introduced including the use of agroforestry systems. For practical restoration, we found that spontaneous recovery was capable of delivering the best results, but that during its early stages, restoration results were affected by several factors including erosion risk, the origin of propagates and environmental variation. In contrast, methods employing human-made communities performed better in their early stages, but were constrained by higher costs and vulnerability to degradation and erosion. The use of N-fixing species such as A. nepalensis and Acacia mearnsii in plantations were unsuccessful in restoring full ecosystem functions. The success of restoration activities in GPR mountain regions could be improved through the following measures:(1) developing a better understanding of the respective advantages and disadvantages of current natural and human-engineered restoration approaches;(2) elucidating the feedback mechanism between phosphorus-rich soil and species selected for restoration, especially N-fixing species;(3) introducing market incentives aimed at encouraging specific restoration activities such as agroforestry, and improving the industry value chain.

The legacy effects of rubber defoliation period on the refoliation phenology,leaf disease,and latex yield

The leaf phenology of trees has received particular attention for its crucial role in the global water and carbon balances,ecosystem,and species distribution.However,current studies on leaf phenology have mainly focused on temperate trees,while few studies including tropical trees.Little attention has been paid to globally extensive industrial plantations.Rubber plantations are important to both the local and global economies.In this study,we investigated the legacy effects of defoliation phenology on the following year’s leaf flushing,leaf disease,and also latex yield of rubber trees,an economically important tree to local people and the world.Results show that extended duration of defoliation increased the subsequent duration of refoliation and rates of infection by powdery mildew disease,but led to reduced latex yield in March.This legacy effect of rubber defoliation may relate to the carbohydrate reserved in the trees.A longer duration of defoliation would consume more reserved carbohydrates,reducing available reserves for disease defense and latex production.Extended duration of defoliation period was associated with either a lower temperature before the cessation of latex tapping in October-November and/or a higher temperature after the cessation of latex tapping in December-January.Leaf falling signals the end of photosynthetic activities in deciduous trees.Thus,the leaf falling phenology will impact ecological processes involving rubber trees.Our findings indicated that the inclusion of defoliation periods in future rubber trees’ research,will be crucial to furthering our understanding of leaf flushing,powdery mildew disease,and latex yield.

Spatial and seasonal variation in soil respiration along a slope in a rubber plantation and a natural forest in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China

Soil respiration is a key component of the global carbon cycle, and even small changes in soil respiration rates could result in significant changes in atmospheric CO_2 levels. The conversion of tropical forests to rubber plantations in SE Asia is increasingly common, and there is a need to understand the impacts of this land-use change on soil respiration in order to revise CO_2 budget calculations. This study focused on the spatial variability of soil respiration along a slope in a natural tropical rainforest and a terraced rubber plantation in Xishuangbanna, Southwest(SW) China. In each land-use type, we inserted 105 collars for soil respiration measurements.Research was conducted over one year in Xishuangbanna during May, June, July and October 2015(wet season) and January and March 2016(dry season). The mean annual soil respiration rate was 30% higher in natural forest than in rubber plantation and mean fluxes in the wet and dry season were 15.1 and 9.5 Mg C ha^(-1) yr^(-1) in natural forest and 11.7 and 5.7 Mg C ha^(-1) yr^(-1) in rubber plantation. Using a linear mixedeffects model to assess the effect of changes in soil temperature and moisture on soil respiration, we found that soil temperature was the main driver of variation in soil respiration, explaining 48% of its seasonal variation in rubber plantation and 30% in natural forest. After including soil moisture, the model explained 70% of the variation in soil respiration in natural forest and 76% in rubber plantation. In the natural forest slope position had a significant effect on soil respiration, and soil temperature and soil moisture gradients only partly explained this correlation. In contrast, soil respiration in rubber plantation was not affected by slope position, which may be due to the terrace structure that resulted in more homogeneous environmental conditions along the slope. Further research is needed to determine whether or not these findings hold true at a landscape level.

Soil respiration under three different land use types in a tropical mountain region of China

Soil respiration (SR) Wis one of the largest contributors of terrestrial CO_2 to the atmosphere.Environmental as well as physicochemical parameters influence SR and thus, different land use practices impact the emissions of soil CO_2. In this study, we measured SR, bi-monthly, over a one-year period in a terrace tea plantation, a forest tea plantation and a secondary forest, in a subtropical mountain area in Xishuangbanna, China. Along with the measurement of SR rates, soil characteristics for each of the land use systems were investigated. Soil respiration rates in the different land use systems did not differ significantly during the dry season, ranging from2.7±0.2 μmol m^(-2) s^(-1) to 2.8±0.2 μmol m^(-2) s^(-1). During the wet season, however, SR rates were significantly larger in the terrace tea plantation(5.4±0.5 μmol m^(-2)s^(-1)) and secondary forest(4.9±0.4 μmol m^(-2)s^(-1)) than in the forest tea plantation(3.7±0.2 μmol m^(-2) s^(-1)).This resulted in significantly larger annual soil CO_2 emissions from the terrace tea and secondary forest,than from the forest tea plantation. It is likely that these differences in the SR rates are due to the 0.5times lower soil organic carbon concentrations in thetop mineral soil in the forest tea plantation, compared to the terrace tea plantation and secondary forest.Furthermore, we suggest that the lower sensitivity to temperature variation in the forest tea soil is a result of the lower soil organic carbon concentrations. The higher SR rates in the terrace tea plantation were partly due to weeding events, which caused CO_2 emission peaks that contributed almost 10% to the annual CO_2 flux. Our findings suggest that moving away from heavily managed tea plantations towards low-input forest tea can reduce the soil CO_2 emissions from these systems. However, our study is a casestudy and further investigations and upscaling are necessary to show if these findings hold true at a landscape level.

Nutrient value of wild fodder species and the implications for improving the diet of mithun (Bos frontalis) in Dulongjiang area, Yunnan Province, China

Wild fodder plants are valuable because they provide an important livestock feed resource globally,especially for smallholder farmers,and have important roles in natural resource management.In-depth knowledge of wild forage plants can motivate local people for feed resource and habitat conservation of threatened herbivores such as Mithun(Bos frontalis).Mithun occur in small patches in the mountains of Dulongjiang,nearby villagers domesticated this animal but left animal to freely graze in the mountains.Many fodder plants occur in these mountains,however,little is known about their nutritional value.We conducted an ethnobotanical survey to document important wild fodder plants consumed by mithun in the Dulongjiang Township.The nutritional content of 21 highly mentioned wild fodder plants in an ethnobotanical survey was examined.Laboratory analysis showed that Fagopyrum dibotrys were the fodder species with the highest crude protein(CP)content(26.89%),followed by Polygonum molle(21.88%)and Hydrangea longipes(21.12%).Synthesis of relative feed value index and grey relational grade,P.molle,H.longipes and Tetrastigma obtectum were ranked the top three nutritional fodders.There was a significant difference between 21 species on their in vitro digestibility and the most highly digestible fodder species was Elatostema hookerianum.Linear model analysis on relationship between frequency of citation of 21 wild forage plants by local farmers and their nutrient composition showed that the frequency was significantly positively correlated with the nutritional value of the feed(R2?0.28,P<0.05).We concluded that these species have high nutritional values to improve mithun production in integrated crop-livestock systems.Fodder species or mixtures of species with useful nutritional characters could be cultivated to improve livestock productivity,habitat conservation including that of mithun and wild forage resource management.

Morphology, Phylogeny and Culture Characteristics of Ganoderma gibbosum Collected from Kunming, Yunnan Province, China

Ganoderma is a genus of medicinally and economically important mushrooms in the family Ganodermataceae.Ganoderma species are popular medicinal mushrooms and their health benefits are well-documented.Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that is widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions.This genus is characterized by its unique laccate or non-laccate species with double-walled basidiospores.Here,we report on eight collections of G.gibbosum collected during surveys in Kunming,Yunnan Province,China.The specimens are described and illustrated based on macro-and micro-morphological characteristics.Total DNA of the eight G.gibbosum strains were extracted using the Biospin Fungal Extraction Kit following manufacturer protocol.Amplification of the Internal Transcribed Spacer(nrITS)region was carried out using ITS5/ITS4 primers and LROR/LR5 for the nuclear ribosomal large subunit 28S rDNA gene(LSU).Phylogenetic analysis with closely related species to G.gibbosum showed that all eight collections grouped with G.gibbosum with 100%bootstrap support.Phylogenetic similarity and morphological variations within the eight collections of G.gibbosum are discussed.

First successful domestication of a white strain of Auricularia cornea from Thailand

Intraspecies colour variations in cultivated edible mushrooms present novel and potentially valuable alternatives to the research and cultivation industries.In this study,we collected,identified,and domesticated a white strain of Auricularia cornea from Thailand.The brown strain of A.cornea is one of the top two species of Auricularia cultivated and traded in Asia.Since both white and brown phenotypes of A.cornea belong to a single species,we established their similarities or differences.Both morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of ITS rDNA sequence data were used to confirm the taxonomic placement of the white A.cornea strain in the same clade with the brown A.cornea.Nutritional analysis showed that fat,fiber,protein,and total soluble sugar contents of the white A.cornea were significantly higher than the commercially used brown strain.The melanin content of the white strain of A.cornea(less than 1.5 mg/100g)was not significantly different from that of the brown strain.This discovery may create new opportunities for the mushroom growing industry and for smallholder farmers in Asia.

Effects of vegetation type and soil horizon on soil bacterial and fungal communities in a dry–hot valley

Soil horizon and vegetation cover significantly impact the spatial patterns of soil fungal and bacterial communities.However,such impacts and their interactions are poorly characterized in dry–hot environments.Soil samples were collected from two soil horizons(humus and mineral)along a vegetation gradient(shrubland,grassland,and shrub–grass ecotone)in a dry-hot valley of Southwestern China to assess the effects of vegetation versus soil horizons on shaping soil microbial communities.We used denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis to estimate the microbial spatial pattern change across the vegetation gradients and clone libraries targeting small subunit rRNA genes to characterize the microbial community structures between distinct vegetation types and soil horizons.Bacterial DNA profile patterns were not significantly different across vegetation types but strongly correlated with soil horizons,with significant interaction effects.By contrast,fungi were remarkably different across vegetation types and soil horizons,without significant interactions effect.Distinct vegetation types did not necessarily harbor distinct bacterial or fungal community compositions.Rather,both community compositions were most strongly affected by the soil horizons.Together with these results,the soil vertical heterogeneity rather than vegetation changes is suggested to best predict shifts in soil microbial communities in this dry-hot valley area.

Morphological and molecular identification of Panus conchatus(Polyporaceae,Polyporales)from Yunnan Province,China

Panus conchatus is a species of lentinoid fungi in the family Polyporaceae.This species is characterized by its concave,smooth,deeply decurrent gills,with distinctive purple grey to greyish magenta basidiocarps.This fungus is widely distributed in both tropical and temperate regions.Here,we report a specimen of P.conchatus collected from a temperate region in Yunnan Province,China.The specimen is described and illustrated based on macro-and micro-morphological characteristics.Phylogenetic analyses were done based on the sequence data of ITS and LSU,and the placement of the taxon was confirmed.This is the first time P.conchatus has been reported with molecular phylogenetic data from China.Full description,illustrations,color photographs,and a phylogenetic tree to show the placement of P.conchatus are provided.

Additions to wild seed and fruit fungi 2:Parascedosporium putredinis:a new Thailand record from Delonix regia seed pods

We are studying seed pod fungi associated with Delonix regia in Thailand and in this paper we provide an illustrated account of Parascedosporium putredinis,which is a new record for Thailand.Phylogenetic analysis of combined ITS and LSU sequence data and morphological similarities provide evidence for its identification.We illustrate the synnematal stage and lateral,solitary conidiophores of P.putredinis obtained in vitro on MEA.We also provide ITS,LSU,SSU,and tef sequence data for P.putredinis,which are deposited in GenBank.

Linking ectomycorrhizal mushroom species richness and composition with dominant trees in a tropical seasonal rainforest

Vegetation,elevation gradient and soil temperature are considered as major drivers of ECM fungi species richness.ECM sporocarps were collected during rainy seasons for two years to study the link between the distribution of ECM mushrooms with Castonopsis echinocarpa,Parashorea chinensis,and Pittosporopsis kerrii with varying elevations and soil temperatures,in a tropical rain forest Xishuangbanna,Yunnan,China.For each tree species,60 trees of approximately the same size were selected,where half of them were growing at higher elevation levels and the rest at lower levels.The highest total counts of ECM fungi,as well as the highest species richness were produced by P.chinensis followed by C.echinocarpa and P.kerrii.Highest species richness was shown in September by P.chinensis,while P.kerrii trees had the lowest count of mushrooms across rainy seasons.Species of Boletales were recorded with highest species richness followed by species of order Agaricales around both C.echinocarpa and P.chinensis.ECM fungi count declined with increased elevation.Furthermore,fungi species richness increased positively with increased soil temperature in a tropical seasonal rainforest.

An Overview of the Problems and Prospects for Circular Agriculture in Sustainable Food Systems in the Anthropocene

In this overview paper,we outline and explore problems and prospects for circular agriculture’s contributions to transformative change toward sustainable food systems in the Anthropocene.We define circular agriculture(CA)and provide historical context on its development.We then discuss how CA can contribute to food system transformations in four key areas:multi-functional landscapes;sustainable intensification(focusing on nitrogen/crop-livestock management and digital agriculture);smallholder farmers;and dietary change.We find that food systems transitions will be challenging due to the depth,scale,and speed of changes necessary for humans to remain within safe planetary boundaries out to 2050.

Diaporthe collariana sp.nov.,with prominent collarettes associated with Magnolia champaca fruits in Thailand

We are studying seed and fruit inhabiting fungi in Thailand and this paper introduces a new species,Diaporthe collariana,from Magnolia champaca fruits,collected in Chiang Rai Province.Molecular analysis of a combined ITS,TEF1,TUB and CAL sequence DNA and morphological data provide evidence to justify the new species.Diaporthe collariana is characterized by producing alpha and beta conidia,and conidiogenous cells with prominent,flared collarettes.The new species is compared with closely related species in the genus.

Taxonomic circumscription and phylogenetics of novel didymellaceous taxa with brown muriform spores

Sexual morph of didymellaceous taxa are characterized by their ascomata with relatively thin peridium,cylindric-clavate to clavate,short-pedicellate or apedicellate asci,hyaline to brown,1-septate to muriform ascospores.Its asexual morphs are coelomycetous and comprising pycnidial or acervulus conidiomata,phialidic,hyaline conidiogenous cells and hyaline or pale brown,septate or aseptate conidia.The majority of these cosmopolitan species are plant associated fungi which can be pathogens on a wide range of hosts and some species are of particular relevance for quarantine measures.Recent studies have significantly improved the taxonomy and systematics of didymellaceous taxa based on molecular phylogenetics.In contrast to the accurate and detailed studies on the asexual morphs which are common obligate pathogens,information on their usually saprobic sexual morphs is still limited.Among these phenotypically diverse species,spore characteristics are quite unique as most have hyaline spores with 0-1 septum,while only Neomicrosphaeropsis and Didymellocamarosporium are reported as producing pigmented,muriform spores.These dematiaceous muriform spores are characteristic of a considerable number of species that may be quite divergent in other characters.During taxonomic investigations on the diversity of didymellaceous taxa,we have isolated species from Alhagi pseudalhagi,Coronilla emerus,Cytisus sp.,Elaeagnus angustifolia and Spartium junceum in Italy,Russia and Uzbekistan.A comprehensive phylogeny,based on four loci(ITS,LSU,rpb2 and tub2)is used to infer species relationships.Comprehensive morphological descriptions and in-depth phylogenetic investigations of five new species viz.Ascochyta coronillae-emeri,Microsphaeropsis spartii-juncei,Neomicrosphaeropsis alhagi-pseudalhagi,N.cytisicola and N.elaeagni are presented.

Predicting the impact of climate change on the distribution of two threatened Himalayan medicinal plants of Liliaceae in Nepal

Predicting the potential distribution of medicinal plants in response to climate change is essential for their conservation and management. Contributing to the management program, this study aimed to predict the distribution of two threatened medicinal plants, Fritillaria cirrhosa and Lilium nepalense. The location of focal species gathered from herbarium specimen housed in different herbaria and online databases were geo-referenced and checked for spatial autocorrelation. The predictive environmental variables were selected, and MaxE nt software was used to model the current and future distributions of focal species. Four Representative Concentration Pathway(RCP) trajectories of the BCC-CSM1.1 model were used as the future(2050) projection layer. The MaxEnt modelling delineated the potential distribution of F. cirrhosa and L. nepalense. The current suitability is projected towards Central and Eastern Hilly/Mountainous regions. Both species gainmaximum suitability in RCP 4.5 which decline towards other trajectories for L. nepalense. Overall, both the focal species shift towards the north-west, losing their potential habitat in hilly and lower mountainous regions by 2050 across all trajectories. Our results highlight the impact of future climate change on two threatened and valuable species. The results can be further useful to initiate farming of these medicinally and economically important species based on climatically suitable zone and for designing a germplasm conservation strategy.

Using leaf area index(LAI) to assess vegetation response to drought in Yunnan province of China

Climatic extremes such as drought have becoming a severe climate-related problem in many regions all over the world that can induce anomalies in vegetation condition. Growth and CO2 uptake by plants are constrained to a large extent by drought.Therefore, it is important to understand the spatial and temporal responses of vegetation to drought across the various land cover types and different regions. Leaf area index(LAI) derived from Global Land Surface Satellite(GLASS) data was used to evaluate the response of vegetation to drought occurrence across Yunnan Province, China(2001-2010). The meteorological drought was assessed based on Standardized Precipitation Index(SPI)values. Pearson's correlation coefficients between LAI and SPI were examined across several timescales within six sub-regions of the Yunnan. Further, the drought-prone area was identified based on LAI anomaly values. Lag and cumulative effects of lack of precipitation on vegetation were evident, with significant correlations found using 3-, 6-, 9-and 12-month timescale. We found 9-month timescale has higher correlations compared to another timescale.Approximately 29.4% of Yunnan's area was classified as drought-prone area, based on the LAI anomaly values. Most of this drought-prone area was distributed in the mountainous region of Yunnan.From the research, it is evident that GLASS LAI can be effectively used as an indicator for assessing drought conditions and it provide valuable information for drought risk defense and preparedness.

Determining bioclimatic space of Himalayan alder for agroforestry systems in Nepal

Himalayan alder species are proven to be very useful in traditional as well as contemporary agroforestry practice. These nitrogen-fixing trees are also useful in the land restoration. Therefore, understanding the distribution of Himalayan alder and the potential zone for plantation is meaningful in the agroforestry sector. Suitable climatic zones of Alnus spp. were modelled in Max Ent software using a subset of least correlated bioclimatic variables for current conditions(1950 -2000), topographic variables(DEM derived) and Landuse Landcover(LULC) data. We generated several models and selected the best model against random models using ANOVA and t-test. The environmental variables that best explained the current distribution of the species were identified and used to project into the future. For future projections, ensemble scenarios of climate change projection derived from the results of 19 Earth System Models(ESM) were used. Our model revealed that the most favorable conditions for Alnus nepalensis are in central Nepal in the moist north-west facing slope, whereas for Alnus nitida they are in western Nepal.The major climatic factor that contributes to Alnus species distribution in Nepal appears to be precipitation during the warmest quarter for A. nepalensis and precipitation during the driest quarter for A. nitida. Future projections revealed changes in the probability distribution of these species, as well as where they need conservation and where they can be planted. Also, our model predicts that the distribution of Alnus spp. in hilly regions will remain unchanged, and therefore may represent sites that can be used to revitalize traditional agroforestry systems and extract source material for land restoration.

Rural E-commerce and County Economic Development in China

With the proliferation of information and communication technology in rural areas,rural e-commerce has gradually become a new economic phenomenon in China. Usingthe national rural e-commerce comprehensive demonstration policy as a quasi-naturalexperiment, this study examines the causal linkage between rural e-commerce andcounty-level economic development in China. Its findings, which draw on county-levelpanel data from 2011 to 2018, indicate that the policy had a positive effect on the countyleveleconomy in China, resulting in an overall increase in county GDP by 3.5 percent(0.7 percent annually). Our analysis further shows that the impact of the policy diferedalong the region and human capital dimensions. Further analysis reveals that industrialstructure and nonagricultural employment were the main channels for the policy toexert a county-level economic impact. Infrastructure improvement in China also playsan important role. The findings emphasize the importance of advancing e-commerce inrural areas to stimulate county-level economic development.

Profile of Bionectriaceae,Calcarisporiaceae,Hypocreaceae,Nectriaceae,Tilachlidiaceae,Ijuhyaceae fam.nov.,Stromatonectriaceae fam.nov.and Xanthonectriaceae fam.nov

This paper provides outlines for Bionectriaceae,Calcarisporiaceae,Hypocreaceae,Nectriaceae,Tilachlidiaceae,Ijuhy-aceae,Stromatonectriaceae and Xanthonectriaceae with taxonomic treatments.We provide up-to-date DNA sequence-based phylogenies including combined gene analysis of ITS,LSU,rpb2,tef1 and tub2 for Hypocreales and accept 17 families.Three new families and 12 new species are introduced with descriptions and illustrations,while 13 new records and one new species combination are provided.Here we mainly detail the taxonomy of Bionectriaceae,Hypocreaceae,Nectriaceae and Tilachlidiaceae,Ijuhyaceae fam.nov.,Stromatonectriaceae fam.nov.and Xanthonectriaceae fam.nov.are introduced in this study based on phenotypic and molecular analyses.For each family we provide a list of accepted genera,the taxo-nomic history,morphological descriptions,taxonomic placement based on DNA sequence data and illustrate the type genus.Representatives of each family are illustrated based on the type herbarium material or fresh specimens where available,or provide relevant references.Notes on ecological and economic importance of the families are also given.

Taxonomy,phylogeny and evolution of freshwater Hypocreomycetidae(Sordariomycetes)

Hypocreomycetidae is a highly diverse group with species from various habitats. This subclass has been reported as pathogenic,endophytic, parasitic, saprobic, fungicolous, lichenicolous, algicolous, coprophilous and insect fungi from aquatic andterrestrial habitats. In this study, we focused on freshwater fungi of Hypocreomycetidae which resulted 41 fresh collectionsfrom China and Thailand. Based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, we identified 26 species that belong to twoorders (Hypocreales and Microascales) and six families (Bionectriaceae, Halosphaeriaceae, Microascaceae, Nectriaceae,Sarocladiaceae and Stachybotryaceae). Ten new species are introduced and 13 new habitats and geographic records arereported. Mariannaea superimposita, Stachybotrys chartarum and S. chlorohalonatus are recollected from freshwater habitatsin China. Based on phylogenetic analysis of combined LSU, ITS, SSU, rpb2 and tef1-α sequences data, Emericellopsisis transferred to Hypocreales genera incertae sedis;Pseudoacremonium is transferred to Bionectriaceae;Sedecimiella isplaced in Nectriaceae;Nautosphaeria and Tubakiella are excluded from Halosphaeriaceae and placed in Microascalesgenera incertae sedis;and Faurelina is excluded from Hypocreomycetidae. Varicosporella is placed under Atractium as asynonym of Atractium. In addition, phylogenetic analysis and divergence time estimates showed that Ascocodina, Campylospora,Cornuvesica and Xenodactylariaceae form distinct lineages in Hypocreomycetidae and they evolved in the family/order time frame. Hence, a new order (Xenodactylariales) and three new families (Ascocodinaceae, Campylosporaceae andCornuvesicaceae) are introduced based on phylogenetic analysis, divergence time estimations and morphological characters.Ancestral character state analysis is performed for different habitats of Hypocreomycetidae including freshwater, marineand terrestrial taxa. The result indicates that marine and freshwater fungi evolved independently from terrestrial ancestors.The results further support those early diverging clades of this subclass, mostly comprising terrestrial taxa and freshwaterand marine taxa have been secondarily derived, while the crown clade (Nectriaceae) is represented in all three habitats. Theevolution of various morphological adaptations towards their habitual changes are also discussed.